Albert Einstein's work on theory. One hundred years of general relativity. Who helped Einstein. Moving to the USA, last years of life
Name: Albert Einstein
State: Germany, USA
Field of activity: The science
Probably, not only in Germany, but throughout the world there is not another scientist as famous and discussed as Albert Einstein. Despite the fact that he lived in the first half of the 20th century, his business still exists. Everyone has heard about the legendary theory of relativity. But not everyone knows what the work of the great scientist was, and not everyone knows the details of his biography. We will try to fill this gap.
early years
The future theoretical physicist was born on March 14, 1879 in Southern Germany, in the city of Ulm. His family was quite prosperous, but not very rich - his father owned a factory for stuffing mattresses and feather beds with feathers. Mother came from a family of traders. Both parents had Jewish roots. Soon after the birth of their son, the family moved to Munich, where Albert's younger sister, Maria, was born. His parents sent him to receive his primary education at the Luitpold school in Munich.
In his childhood, the boy was very religious - his upbringing and the influence of teachers affected him, because the school was Catholic. However, over time, Albert leaves religion. It cannot be said that he was a diligent student - he only had excellent grades in mathematics and Latin.
As he got a little older, he began to come into conflict with teachers, defending his point of view. In the 1880s, Polish medical student Max Talmud, who knew the Einsteins and often dined with them, introduced the boy to a children's science book, after reading which Albert began to think about the movement and origin of light. Thus began the future genius’s acquaintance with physics. We can say that it was the Talmud that became the mentor of the young scientist. Albert began to study the details of the origin of light and a few years later wrote his first research article on the ether in magnetic fields.
In 1894, the family moved to Italy, to the town of Pavia near Milan, where Albert’s father and his brother opened their own factory. The young man still lives in Munich for some time - he needs to finish his education. However, he was never able to do this and followed his family to Pavia. Note that there was another reason for the move: Einstein reached adulthood and had to join the army. However, he managed to obtain a doctor's certificate for nervous exhaustion and quickly left Germany. Of course, such an act shocked the parents, but they quickly came to terms with it.
It's time to get a higher education. He tried to enter the Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich. Having passed exams in mathematics and physics with flying colors, he failed in biology and French. Because of this, he was unable to become a student at an educational institution. He was advised to complete his school course at the Aarau educational institution, where Einstein could improve his knowledge and try again next year. Albert obeyed.
Here he studies electromagnetic theories in detail, successfully completes his studies, receives a certificate and tries his hand at entering the Polytechnic again. This time he manages to become a student. He meets other fellow students, including his future wife, Serbian Mileva Maric. During his studies, Albert made an attempt to renounce German citizenship and accept Swiss citizenship, but he had to pay for it, and the Einstein family did not have that kind of money. Only 5 years later Albert could finally become a full citizen.
Years after study
In 1902, after a long search and hungry months, Albert became a clerk in the patent office. The work was not very dusty and not very busy, so Einstein had a lot of free time to develop his theories. Subsequently, they will become the basis for the future theory of relativity. Also during this period, he began to have a full-fledged family - three children were born in his marriage to Mileva. True, the eldest daughter died at an early age from complications after an illness.
The year 1905 arrived. It went down in history as a year of miracles. Einstein published his articles on Brownian motion and the photoelectric effect in scientific journals. Also, two more articles were presented to the attention of physics lovers and professional scientists in the field - E=MC² and the theory of relativity, with which Albert will soon go down in history. In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. The reader may ask a completely reasonable question: why wasn’t he awarded for what he became famous for? The answer is quite simple: at that time the theory of relativity still raised many doubts; the scientific world was not ready to accept it. After all, in essence, it shattered all knowledge and beliefs over the centuries-old history of Europe. What is the essence of the theory of relativity?
Theory of relativity
Einstein explains that objects move at uniform speed. There is also acceleration and gravity. The space of time and their relationship are mentioned. The main idea is the fact that the speed of light is a constant quantity relative to any object. And no matter what speed the object has, the light will still travel at the same speed.
As for space, Albert Einstein found out that it is four-dimensional. Together with time, it is combined into a single term - the space-time continuum. However, a person cannot perceive all four spaces. Of course, given the experience of the learned fathers of past years and centuries, Albert Einstein could not help but understand that his theories and ideas would cause controversy. Not to mention the church, which has always jealously guarded scientific secrets.
In the 1930s, Einstein received an invitation to come to the United States to give lectures on physics. After several years spent in Germany, he was forced to leave Berlin. And just in time. The Nazi Party, led by the NSDAP, declared all Jewish scientists outlawed.
They were fired from schools and universities. Many were able to leave their inhospitable home and move to the United States, like Albert.
last years of life
Of course, he himself did not expect to stay in America. But fate decreed otherwise - he never saw Germany again. He lived the remainder of his days in Princeton, New Jersey. In 1935, he received a residence permit, and five years later, American citizenship. he also met on American soil, helping create weapons systems.
In 1939, he wrote a letter to the US President with a note that the Nazis were creating nuclear weapons. Therefore, America must get ahead of it. However, everything turned out completely differently than the great scientist expected. In 1945, American bombs were dropped on Japan. And Einstein began to urge the people and the state to abandon the large-scale use of these dangerous weapons.
In the 1950s, he was developing quantum theory, developing a unified field theory - a unique description of all physical theories based on the primary field. Health gradually begins to deteriorate. On April 18, 1955, he died in Princeton from a ruptured aorta. According to the physicist’s will, no grand funeral was held, but the body was cremated and the ashes were scattered to the wind. Amazing fact: his brain was removed from his skull to study the Einstein phenomenon. True, this was done with the consent of Albert himself, again according to his will.
Be that as it may, many more years will pass, and generations who have never seen or known him, but only imagine a photograph with his tongue hanging out, and are also familiar only with the name “theory of relativity,” will study this phenomenon more deeply. And you can be sure that the name of the great German will forever remain in the history of mankind.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia: Einstein Albert (14.3.1879, Ulm, Germany - 18.4.1955, Princeton, USA), physicist, creator of the theory of relativity and one of the creators of quantum theory and statistical physics. From the age of 14 he lived in Switzerland with his family. After graduating from the Zurich Polytechnic (1900), he worked as a teacher, first in Winterthur, then in Schafhausen. In 1902 he received a position as an expert at the Federal Patent Office in Bern, where he worked until 1909. During these years, E. created the special theory of relativity, carried out research on statistical physics, Brownian motion, radiation theory, etc. E.’s works became famous, and in 1909 he was elected professor at the University of Zurich, then at the German University in Prague (1911-12). In 1912 he returned to Zurich, where he took a chair at the Zurich Polytechnic. In 1913 he was elected a member of the Prussian and Bavarian Academy of Sciences and in 1914 he moved to Berlin, where he was director of the physical institute and prof. University of Berlin. During the Berlin period, E. completed the creation of the general theory of relativity and further developed the quantum theory of radiation. For the discovery of the laws of the photoelectric effect and work in the field of theoretical physics, E. was awarded the Nobel Prize (1921). In 1933, he was forced to leave Germany; subsequently, in protest against fascism, he renounced his German citizenship, resigned from the academy and moved to Princeton (USA), where he became a member of the Institute of Advanced Studies. During this period, E. tried to develop a unified field theory and studied issues of cosmology. Works on the theory of relativity. E.'s main scientific achievement is the theory of relativity, which is essentially the general theory of space, time and gravity. The ideas about space and time that prevailed before E. were formulated by I. Newton at the end of the 17th century. and did not come into obvious contradiction with the facts until the development of physics led to the emergence of electrodynamics and, in general, to the study of movements at speeds close to the speed of light. The equations of electrodynamics (Maxwell's equations) turned out to be incompatible with the equations of Newton's classical mechanics. The contradictions became especially acute after Michelson's experiment, the results of which could not be explained within the framework of classical physics.
The special, or particular, theory of relativity, the subject of which is the description of physical phenomena (including the propagation of light) in inertial reference systems, was published by E. in 1905 in almost completed form. One of its main provisions - the complete equality of all inertial frames of reference - makes the concepts of absolute space and absolute time of Newtonian physics meaningless. Only those conclusions that do not depend on the speed of movement of the inertial reference frame retain their physical meaning. Based on these ideas, E. derived new laws of motion, which in the case of low speeds are reduced to Newton’s laws, and also gave a theory of optical phenomena in moving bodies. Turning to the ether hypothesis, he comes to the conclusion that the description of the electromagnetic field does not require any medium at all and that the theory turns out to be consistent if, in addition to the principle of relativity, one introduces the postulate about the independence of the speed of light from the reference frame. A deep analysis of the concept of simultaneity and the processes of measuring intervals of time and length (partially carried out also by A. Poincaré) showed the physical necessity of the formulated postulate. In the same year (1905), E. published an article where he showed that the mass of a body m is proportional to its energy E, and the next year he derived the famous relation E = mc2 (c is the speed of light in vacuum). The work of G. Minkowski on four-dimensional space-time was of great importance for the completion of the construction of the special theory of relativity. The special theory of relativity has become an indispensable tool for physical research (for example, in nuclear physics and particle physics), and its conclusions have received full experimental confirmation.
The special theory of relativity left aside the phenomenon of gravity. The question of the nature of gravity, as well as the equations of the gravitational field and the laws of its propagation, was not even raised in it. E. drew attention to the fundamental importance of the proportionality of gravitational and inertial masses (the principle of equivalence). Trying to reconcile this principle with the invariance of a four-dimensional interval, E. came to the idea of the dependence of the geometry of space - time on matter and, after a long search, derived in 1915-16 the equation of the gravitational field (Einstein's equation, see Gravity). This work laid the foundations for the general theory of relativity.
E. made an attempt to apply his equation to the study of the global properties of the Universe. In his work in 1917, he showed that from the principle of its homogeneity one can obtain a connection between the density of matter and the radius of curvature of space-time. Limited, however, to a static model of the Universe, he was forced to introduce negative pressure (cosmological constant) into the equation in order to balance the forces of attraction. The correct approach to the problem was found by A.A. Friedman, who came up with the idea of an expanding universe. These works laid the foundation for relativistic cosmology.
In 1916, E. predicted the existence of gravitational waves by solving the problem of the propagation of gravitational disturbances. Thus, the construction of the foundations of the general theory of relativity was completed.
The general theory of relativity explained (1915) the anomalous behavior of the orbit of the planet Mercury, which remained incomprehensible within the framework of Newtonian mechanics, predicted the deflection of a ray of light in the gravitational field of the Sun (discovered in 1919-22) and the displacement of the spectral lines of atoms located in the gravitational field (discovered in 1925 ). Experimental confirmation of the existence of these phenomena was a brilliant confirmation of the general theory of relativity.
The development of the general theory of relativity in the works of E. and his colleagues is associated with an attempt to construct a unified field theory, in which the electromagnetic field should be organically connected with the space-time metric, like the gravitational field. These attempts did not lead to success, but interest in this problem increased in connection with the construction of relativistic quantum field theory.
Works on quantum theory. E. plays an important role in the development of the foundations of quantum theory. He introduced the concept of the discrete structure of the radiation field and, on this basis, derived the laws of the photoelectric effect, and also explained luminescent and photochemical patterns. E.'s ideas about the quantum structure of light (published in 1905) were in apparent contradiction with the wave nature of light, which found resolution only after the creation of quantum mechanics.
Successfully developing quantum theory, E. in 1916 came to the division of radiation processes into spontaneous (spontaneous) and forced (induced) and introduced Einstein’s coefficients A and B, which determine the probabilities of these processes. The consequence of E.'s reasoning was the statistical derivation of Planck's law of radiation from the condition of equilibrium between emitters and radiation. This work of E. lies at the basis of modern quantum electronics.
Applying the same statistical consideration not to the emission of light, but to vibrations of the crystal lattice, E. created the theory of heat capacity of solids (1907, 1911). In 1909 he derived a formula for energy fluctuations in a radiation field. This work confirmed his quantum theory of radiation and played an important role in the development of the theory of fluctuations.
E.'s first work in the field of statistical physics appeared in 1902. In it, E., not knowing about the works of J.W. Gibbs, develops his own version of statistical physics, defining the probability of a state as an average over time. This view of the initial principles of statistical physics led E. to the development of the theory of Brownian motion (published in 1905), which formed the basis of the theory of fluctuations.
In 1924, having become acquainted with S. Bose’s article on the statistics of light quanta and appreciating its significance, E. published Bose’s article with his notes, in which he pointed to a direct generalization of Bose’s theory to an ideal gas. Following this, E.'s work appeared on the quantum theory of an ideal gas; This is how Bose-Einstein statistics arose.
Developing the theory of molecular mobility (1905) and exploring the reality of Ampere currents that generate magnetic moments, E. came to the prediction and experimental discovery, together with the Dutch physicist W. de Haas, of the effect of changing the mechanical moment of a body when it is magnetized (Einstein-de Haas effect).
E.'s scientific works played a major role in the development of modern physics. The special theory of relativity and the quantum theory of radiation were the basis of quantum electrodynamics, quantum field theory, atomic and nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, quantum electronics, relativistic cosmology and other branches of physics and astrophysics.
E.'s ideas are of great methodological importance. They changed the mechanistic views on space and time that had dominated in physics since the time of Newton and led to a new, materialistic picture of the world, based on the deep, organic connection of these concepts with matter and its movement, one of the manifestations of this connection was gravitation. E.'s ideas have become the main component of the modern theory of a dynamic, continuously expanding Universe, which makes it possible to explain an unusually wide range of observed phenomena.
E.'s discoveries were recognized by scientists all over the world and created international authority for him. E. was very concerned about the socio-political events of the 20-40s, he resolutely opposed fascism, war, and the use of nuclear weapons. He took part in the anti-war struggle in the early 30s. In 1940, E. signed a letter to the President of the United States, in which he pointed out the danger of the appearance of nuclear weapons in Nazi Germany, which stimulated the organization of nuclear research in the United States.
E. was a member of many scientific societies and academies around the world, including an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).
A well-known figure in the world of natural sciences, Albert Einstein (life: 1879-1955) is known even to humanists who do not like exact subjects, because the man’s surname has become a household name for people with incredible mental abilities.
Einstein is the founder of physics in its modern sense: the great scientist is the founder of the theory of relativity and the author of more than three hundred scientific works. Albert is also known as a publicist and public figure, who is an honorary doctor of about twenty higher educational institutions in the world. This man is attractive because of his ambiguity: the facts say that, despite his incredible intelligence, he was clueless in solving everyday issues, which makes him an interesting figure in the eyes of the public.
Childhood and youth
The biography of the great scientist begins with the small German city of Ulm, located on the Danube River - this is the place where Albert was born on March 14, 1879 in a poor family of Jewish origin.
The father of the brilliant physicist Herman was engaged in the production of filling mattresses with feather stuffing, but soon Albert’s family moved to the city of Munich. Herman, together with Jacob, his brother, started a small company selling electrical equipment, which at first developed successfully, but soon could not withstand the competition of large companies.
As a child, Albert was considered a slow-witted child; for example, he did not speak until he was three years old. Parents were even afraid that their child would never learn to pronounce words when, at the age of 7, Albert could barely move his lips, trying to repeat memorized phrases. Also, the scientist’s mother Paulina was afraid that the child had a congenital deformity: the boy had a large back of the head that protruded strongly forward, and Einstein’s grandmother constantly repeated that her grandson was fat.
Albert had little contact with his peers and liked solitude more, for example, building houses of cards. From an early age, the great physicist showed a negative attitude towards war: he hated the noisy game of toy soldiers, because it personifies a bloody war. Einstein’s attitude towards war did not change throughout his later life: he actively opposed bloodshed and nuclear weapons.
A vivid memory of the genius is the compass that Albert received from his father at the age of five. Then the boy was sick, and Herman showed him an object that interested the child: what’s surprising is that the arrow on the device showed the same direction. This small object aroused incredible interest in young Einstein.
Little Albert was often taught by his uncle Jacob, who from childhood instilled in his nephew a love for the exact mathematical sciences. They read textbooks on geometry and mathematics together, and solving a problem on their own was always a joy for the young genius. However, Einstein’s mother Paulina had a negative attitude towards such activities and believed that for a five-year-old child, love for the exact sciences would not turn out to be anything good. But it was clear that this man would make great discoveries in the future.
Albert Einstein with his sister It is also known that Albert was interested in religion from childhood; he believed that it was impossible to begin to study the universe without understanding God. The future scientist watched the clergy with trepidation and did not understand why the higher biblical mind did not stop the wars. When the boy was 12 years old, his religious beliefs sank into oblivion due to the study of scientific books. Einstein became a believer that the Bible was a highly developed system for controlling youth.
After graduating from school, Albert enters the Munich gymnasium. His teachers considered him mentally retarded due to the same speech impediment. Einstein studied only those subjects that interested him, ignoring history, literature and the German language. He had special problems with the German language: the teacher told Albert to his face that he would not graduate from school.
Albert Einstein at age 14 Einstein hated going to school and believed that the teachers themselves did not know much, but instead considered themselves upstarts who were allowed to do everything. Because of such judgments, young Albert constantly entered into arguments with them, so he developed a reputation as not only a backward student, but also a poor student.
Without graduating from high school, 16-year-old Albert and his family move to sunny Italy, to Milan. In the hope of enrolling at ETH Zurich, the future scientist sets off from Italy to Sweden on foot. Einstein managed to show decent results in the exact sciences in the exam, but Albert completely failed the humanities. But the rector of the technical school appreciated the teenager’s outstanding abilities and advised him to enter the Aarau school in Switzerland, which, by the way, was considered far from the best. And Einstein was not considered a genius at all at this school.
The best students of Aarau left to receive higher education in the German capital, but in Berlin the abilities of the graduates were poorly rated. Albert found out the texts of the problems that the director's favorites couldn't solve and solved them. After which the satisfied future scientist came to Schneider’s office, showing him the solved problems. Albert angered the head of the school by saying that he was unfairly choosing students for competitions.
After successfully completing his studies, Albert enters the educational institution of his dreams - the Zurich school. However, the relationship with the professor of the department, Weber, was bad for the young genius: the two physicists constantly fought and argued.
Beginning of a scientific career
Due to disagreements with professors at the institute, Albert's path to science was closed. He passed the exams well, but not perfectly, the professors refused the student a scientific career. Einstein worked with interest at the scientific department of the Polytechnic Institute; Weber said that his student was a smart guy, but did not take criticism.
At the age of 22, Albert received a teaching diploma in mathematics and physics. But because of the same quarrels with teachers, Einstein could not find a job, spending two years in a painful search for permanent income. Albert lived poorly and could not even buy food. The scientist's friends helped him get a job at the patent office, where he worked for quite a long time.
In 1904, Albert began collaborating with the journal Annals of Physics, gaining authority in the publication, and in 1905 the scientist published his own scientific works. But a revolution in the world of science was made by three articles of the great physicist:
- To the electrodynamics of moving bodies, which became the basis of the theory of relativity;
- The work that laid the foundation for quantum theory;
- A scientific article that made a discovery in statistical physics about Brownian motion.
Theory of relativity
Einstein's theory of relativity radically changed scientific physical concepts, which were previously based on Newtonian mechanics, which existed for about two hundred years. But only a few could fully understand the theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein, so in educational institutions only the special theory of relativity, which is part of the general one, is taught. SRT speaks of the dependence of space and time on speed: the higher the speed of a body’s movement, the more both dimensions and time are distorted.
According to STR, time travel is possible by overcoming the speed of light, therefore, based on the impossibility of such travel, a restriction has been introduced: the speed of any object cannot exceed the speed of light. For small speeds, space and time are not distorted, so the classical laws of mechanics are applied here, and high speeds, for which the distortion is noticeable, are called relativistic. And this is only a small part of both the special and general theories of Einstein’s entire movement.
Nobel Prize
Albert Einstein was nominated for the Nobel Prize more than once, but this award bypassed the scientist for about 12 years because of his new and not everyone understood views on exact science. However, the committee decided to compromise and nominate Albert for his work on the theory of the photoelectric effect, for which the scientist was awarded the prize. All because this invention is not so revolutionary, unlike general relativity, for which Albert, in fact, was preparing a speech.
However, at the time the scientist received a telegram from the nomination committee, the scientist was in Japan, so they decided to present him with the award in 1922 for 1921. However, there are rumors that Albert knew long before the trip that he would be nominated. But the scientist decided not to stay in Stockholm at such a crucial moment.
Personal life
The life of the great scientist is covered with interesting facts: Albert Einstein is a strange man. It is known that he did not like to wear socks, and also hated brushing his teeth. In addition, he had a poor memory for simple things, such as telephone numbers.
Albert married Mileva Maric at the age of 26. Despite the 11-year marriage, the couple soon had disagreements about family life, rumored to be due to the fact that Albert was still a womanizer and had about ten passions. However, he offered his wife a contract of cohabitation, according to which she had to comply with certain conditions, for example, periodically wash things. But according to the contract, Mileva and Albert did not provide for any love relationships: the former spouses even slept separately. The genius had children from his first marriage: the youngest son died while in a psychiatric hospital, and the scientist did not have a good relationship with the eldest.
After divorcing Mileva, the scientist married Elsa Leventhal, his cousin. However, he was also interested in Elsa’s daughter, who did not have mutual feelings for a man who was 18 years older than her.
Many who knew the scientist noted that he was an unusually kind person, ready to lend a helping hand and admit mistakes.
Cause of death and memory
In the spring of 1955, during a walk, Einstein and his friend had a simple conversation about life and death, during which the 76-year-old scientist said that death is also a relief.
On April 13, Albert’s condition worsened sharply: doctors diagnosed an aortic aneurysm, but the scientist refused to operate. Albert was in the hospital, where he suddenly became ill. He whispered words in his native language, but the nurse could not understand them. The woman approached the patient’s bed, but Einstein had already died from a hemorrhage in the abdominal cavity on April 18, 1955. All his friends spoke of him as a meek and very kind person. This was a bitter loss for the entire scientific world.
Quotes
Quotes from a physicist about philosophy and life are a subject for a separate discussion. Einstein formed his own and independent view of life, which more than one generation agrees with.
- There are only two ways to live life. The first is as if miracles do not exist. The second one is like there are only miracles all around.
- If you want to lead a happy life, you must be attached to a goal, not to people or things.
- Logic can take you from point A to point B, and imagination can take you anywhere...
- If the theory of relativity is confirmed, the Germans will say that I am a German, and the French will say that I am a citizen of the world; but if my theory is refuted, the French will declare me a German, and the Germans a Jew.
- If a cluttered desk means a cluttered mind, then what does an empty desk mean?
- People cause me seasickness, not the sea. But I'm afraid science has not yet found a cure for this disease.
- Education is what remains after everything learned at school is forgotten.
- We are all geniuses. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life thinking it is stupid.
- The only thing that prevents me from studying is the education I received.
- Strive not to achieve success, but to ensure that your life has meaning.
Einstein A. Collection of scientific works in four volumes (Academy of Sciences of the USSR. "Classics of Natural Sciences"), edited by I. E. Tamm, Ya. A. Smorodinsky, B. G. Kuznetsov. Volume I. Works on the theory of relativity 1905-1920. M, "Science", 1965. 700 p.
On the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Does the inertia of a body depend on the energy it contains? The law of conservation of motion of the center of gravity and inertia of energy. On the method for determining the relationship between the transverse and longitudinal masses of the electron. On the possibility of a new proof of the principle of relativity. On the inertia required by the principle of relativity. On the principle of relativity and its consequences. On the basic electrodynamic equations of a moving body. The principle of relativity and its consequences in modern physics. On the influence of gravity on the propagation of light. Theory of relativity. Speed of light and static gravitational field. Towards the theory of static gravitational field. Relativity and gravity. Is there a gravitational effect similar to electromagnetic induction? Project for generalizing the theory of relativity and the theory of gravity. Physical foundations of the theory of gravitation. On the current state of the problem of gravitation. Fundamental questions of the generalized theory of relativity and the theory of gravity. Formal foundations of the general theory of relativity. On the problem of relativity. On the basic electrodynamic equations of a moving body. About ponderomotive forces acting in an electromagnetic field on bodies at rest. About the principle of relativity. Covariant properties of field equations in the theory of gravity based on the general theory of relativity. Theory of relativity. Towards a general theory of relativity. Explanation of the motion of Mercury's perihelion in the general theory of relativity. Equations of gravitational field. Fundamentals of general relativity. A new formal interpretation of Maxwell's electrodynamic equations. Approximate integration of gravitational field equations.
Hamilton's principle and general relativity. On the special and general theory of relativity (public presentation). Questions of cosmology and general theory of relativity The fundamental content of the general theory of relativity. Dialogue on objections to the theory of relativity. About gravitational waves The law of conservation of energy in the general theory of relativity. Proof of general relativity. Do gravitational fields play a significant role in the construction of elementary particles of matter? What is the theory of relativity? Ether and the theory of relativity.
The essence of the theory of relativity. Geometry and experience. A simple application of Newton's law of gravity to a globular cluster of stars. A brief outline of the development of the theory of relativity. About one natural addition to the foundations of general relativity. About the theory of relativity. Note on the work of Frapts Seleti "Towards a cosmological system". Note to work 9. Treftz "Static gravitational field of two point masses in Einstein's theory." A note on the work of A. Friedman "On the curvature of space." To the work of A. Friedman "On the curvature of space." Basic ideas and problems of the theory of relativity. Proof of the non-existence of an everywhere regular centrally symmetric field in the Calusa field theory. Towards a general theory of relativity. A note on my work "On the General Theory of Relativity". Toward an affine field theory. Affine field theory. About the broadcast. Eddington's theory and Hamilton's principle. Electron and general theory of relativity. Unified field theory of gravitation and electricity. Non-Euclidean geometry and physics. On the formal relation of the Riemannian curvature tensor to the gravitational field equations. New experiments on the influence of the Earth's motion on the speed of light. On the theory of connection between gravity and electricity Calusa. General theory of relativity and the law of motion. General theory of relativity and the law of motion. Riemann geometry preserving the concept of “absolute parallelism”. A new possibility for a unified theory of the gravitational field and electricity. Space-time. On the current state of field theory. Towards a unified field theory. New field theory. Unified field theory and Hamilton's principle. The problem of space, ether and field in physics. Unified theory of physical field. Unified field theory based on the Riemann metric and absolute parallelism. Compatibility of the equations of the unified field theory. Two rigorous static solutions to the unified field theory equation. On the theory of spaces with Riemannian metrics and absolute parallelism. On the current state of the general theory of relativity. Gravitational and electromagnetic fields. On the cosmological problem of general relativity. Elementary derivation of the equivalence of mass and energy. The problem of particles in the general theory of relativity. The two-body problem in general relativity.
Einstein A. Collection of scientific works in four volumes, edited by I. E. Tamm, Ya. A. Smorodipsky, B. G. Kuznetsov. Volume III. Works on the kinetic theory of study and the foundations of quantum mechanics (1901-1955). M., "Science", 1966, 632 p.
Consequences from the phenomena of capillarity. On the thermodynamic theory of the potential difference between metals and completely dissociated solutions of their salts and on the electrical method for studying molecular forces. Laue "Theorem of probability theory and its application to the theory of radiation." Experimental proof of molecular Ampere currents. Emission and absorption of radiation according to quantum theory. Towards a quantum theory of radiation. Towards the quantum condition of Sommerfeld and Einstein. Derivation of Jacobi's theorem. Is it possible to determine experimentally the refractive indices of bodies for X-rays? Propagation of sound in partially dissociated gases. About an experiment concerning the elementary process of light emission. Theoretical remarks on the superconductivity of metals. On the theory of light propagation in dispersive media. Kpan-theoretical remarks on the experiment of Stern and Gerlach. A note on W. Anderson's note "A New Explanation of the Continuous Spectrum of the Solar Corona".
Einstein A. Collection of scientific works in four volumes, edited by I. E. Tamm, Ya. A. Smorodinsky, B. G. Kuznetsov. Volume IV. Articles, reviews, letters. Evolution of physics. M., "Science", 1967. 599 p.
Max Planck as a researcher. Opening speech. Review of the book by G. A. Lorenz "The Principle of Relativity". Preface to the book by E. Freundlich "Fundamentals of Einstein's Theory of Gravitation." Review of the book by G. A. Lorenz "Statistical Theories in Thermodynamics". On the method of theoretical physics. Science and civilization. In memory of Paul Ehrenfest. In memory of Marie Curie. Preface to L. Infeld's book "The World in the Light of Modern Science". In memory of de Sitter. Review of the book by R. Tolmep "Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology". In memory of Emmy Noether.
Einstein A Physics and reality. Sat. articles. M., "Science", 1965. 359 p.
Popular articles by Einstein, grouped into three sections: principles of theoretical physics; predecessors and contemporaries (Einstein's articles on Kepler, Newton, Planck, Lorentz, etc.). Theory of relativity.
Einstein A. Mein Weltbild. Querido. Amsterdam, 1934.
Einstein A. Comment je vois le mond. Flammarion, Paris, 1934, 258 With. Transl. sleep (Mein Weltbild).
Einstein A. The world as I see it, Covici and Friedo. New York, 1934. 290 p.
Transl. with him. (Mein Welbild).
Articles and speeches by Einstein before 1934
Einstein A. Out of my later years. Philosophical Library. New York, 1950. 251 p. Einstein A. Conceptions scientifiques, morales et sociales. Paris, Flammarion, 1952. 265 p.
Transl. English (Out of my later years).
Articles and speeches of Einstein from 1934 to 1950 Einstein A. Mein Weltbild. Zurich, Europa - Verlag, 1953.
2G8 S.
Einstein A. Ideas and opinions. London, Grown publ. Inc. 1956. 377 p.
Includes all materials "Mein Weltbild" ed. 1953 24 articles out of 00 placed in "Out of my later years", Einstein on peace. Ed. by Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden. Pref. by Bertrand Russel.
The book contains a detailed commentary written by Natap and Norden, close to the monograph on Einstein's statements, and numerous excerpts from Einstein's speeches and letters. The book consists of chapters: 1. The reality of the war (1914-1918); 2. Revolution in Germany, hopes and their collapse (1919-1923); 3. International cooperation and the League of Nations (1922-1927); 4. Anti-war protests in 1928-1931; 5. Anti-war protests in 1931-1932; 6. The eve of fascism in Germany (1932-1933); 7. Nazism and preparation for war. Departure from Europe (1933); 8. Arrival in America.
Rearmament and collective security (1933-1939); 9. Birth of the atomic age (1939-1949); 10. World War II (1939-1945); 11. The Threat of Atomic Weapons (1945); 12. Militarism (1946); 13. The need for a supranational organization (1947); 14. The struggle to save humanity (1948); 15. General disarmament or destruction (1940-1950); 16. The struggle for intellectual freedom (1951-1952); 17. Twilight (1953-1954); 18. The threat of universal destruction (1955).
Einstein A. Lettres a Mauris Solovine. Paris.
Gautier-Villars, 1956. 139 p. Letters from Einstein to his friend Solovin from May 3, 1906 to February 21, 1955. With a preface by Solovin containing memories of meetings with Einstein in Bern. Einstein A., Born I
. und Born M. Briefwechsel. 1916-1955. Komm. von Max Born. Geleiwort von B. Russel.
Worw. von W. Heisen-borg. Munchen, 1969.
Einstein's correspondence spanning forty years with Max Born and Hedwig Born.
Albert Einstein-Arnold Sommerfeld. Briefwechsel. Geleitwort von Max Born. Hrsg. A. Hermann. Basel - Stuttgart, 1968. 126 S. Letters from Einstein to Arnold Sommerfeld and letters from Sommerfeld relating to a number of general physical problems, to the theory of relativity and to the theory of quantum.
Einstein L
. Collected Writings (1901-1956).
Readex Mictoprint Corporation.
New York, 1960.
1921
60. The essence of the theory of relativity
61. Geometry and experience
62. Simple application of Newton's law of gravity to a globular cluster of stars
63. Brief outline of the development of the theory of relativity
64. About one natural addition to the foundations of general relativity
65. About the theory of relativity
1922
66. Note on the work of Franz Seleti “Towards a cosmological system”
70. Basic ideas and problems of the theory of relativity
71. Proof of the non-existence of an everywhere regular centrally symmetric field in Kaluza field theory
72. Toward the general theory of relativity
73. Note on my work “Toward the General Theory of Relativity”
74. Towards affine field theory
75. Affine field theory
1924
76. About the air
1925
77. Eddington's theory and Hamilton's principle
78. Electron and general relativity
79. Unified field theory of gravity and electricity
1926
80. Non-Euclidean geometry and physics
81. On the formal relation of the Riemannian curvature tensor to the gravitational field equations
1927
82. New experiments on the influence of the Earth’s movement on the speed of light
83. On Kaluza’s theory of connection between gravity and electricity
84. On Kaluza’s theory of connection between gravity and electricity. II
85. General theory of relativity and the law of motion
86. General theory of relativity and the law of motion
1928
87. Riemann geometry preserving the concept of “absolute” parallelism
88. New possibility of a unified theory of the gravitational field and electricity
1929
89. Space-time
90. On the current state of field theory
91. Towards a unified field theory
92. New field theory. I
93. New field theory. II
94. Unified field theory and Hamilton's principle
1930
95. The problem of space, ether and field in physics
96. The problem of space, field and ether in physics
97. Unified physical field theory
98. Unified field theory based on the Riemann metric and absolute parallelism
99. Compatibility of the equations of the unified field theory
100. Two rigorous static solutions to the equations of the unified field theory
101. Towards the theory of spaces with Riemannian metrics and absolute parallelism
102. On the current state of general relativity
103. Gravitational and electromagnetic fields
1931
104. On the cosmological problem of general relativity
105. Systematic study of simultaneous field equations possible in Riemannian space with absolute parallelism
106. Unified theory of gravity and electricity
1932
107. Unified theory of gravity and electricity. II
108. On the connection between the expansion and the average density of the Universe
109. Current state of the theory of relativity
1933
110. Some remarks on the emergence of the general theory of relativity
111. About the cosmological structure of space
1935
112. Elementary derivation of the equivalence of mass and energy
113. The problem of particles in general relativity
1936
114. Two-body problem in general relativity
115. Lens-like action of a star when light is deflected in a gravitational field
1937
116. About gravitational waves
1988
117. Gravitational equations and the problem of motion
118. Generalization of Kaluza's theory of electricity
1989
119. About stationary systems consisting of many gravitating particles and having spherical symmetry
1940
120. Gravitational equations and the problem of motion. II
1941
121. About the five-dimensional representation of gravity and electricity
122. Demonstration of the non-existence of gravitational fields with non-vanishing mass, free from singularities
1943
123. Non-existence of regular stationary solutions of relativistic field equations
1944
124. Bivector fields. I
125. Bivector fields. II
1945
126. About the “cosmological problem”
127. Generalization of the relativistic theory of gravity
128. The influence of the expansion of space on the gravitational fields surrounding individual stars
1946
129. Amendments and additional comments to our work “The influence of the expansion of space on the gravitational fields surrounding individual stars”
130. Generalization of the relativistic theory of gravity. II
131. Elementary derivation of the equivalence of mass and energy
132. E = mc2: an urgent problem of our time
1948
133. Relativity: the essence of the theory of relativity
134. Generalized theory of gravity
1949
135. On the movement of particles in the general theory of relativity
1950
136. Time, space and gravity
137. About the generalized theory of gravity
138. Bianchi identities in the generalized theory of gravity
1952
139. Relativity and the problem of space
140. Response to readers of Popular Science Monthly
1953
141. Generalization of the theory of gravity
142. A note on criticism of the unified field theory
143. On the current state of the general theory of gravity
1954
144. Algebraic properties of the field in the relativistic theory of asymmetric field
1955
145. New form of field equations in general relativity
146. Relativistic theory of asymmetric field
