Civil conflict in Yugoslavia. Civil War in Yugoslavia
Accused of war crimes committed during the armed conflict on Croatian territory in 1991-1995.
The collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) in the early 1990s was accompanied by civil wars and ethnic conflicts with the intervention of foreign states. Fighting to varying degrees and in different time affected all six republics of the former Yugoslavia. Total number victims of conflicts in the Balkans since the early 1990s exceed 130 thousand people. Material damage amounts to tens of billions of dollars.
Conflict in Slovenia(June 27 - July 7, 1991) became the most transient. The armed conflict, known as the Ten Day War or the Slovenian War of Independence, began after Slovenia declared independence on June 25, 1991.
Units of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), which launched the offensive, encountered fierce resistance from local self-defense units. According to the Slovenian side, JNA losses amounted to 45 people killed and 146 wounded. About five thousand military personnel and employees federal services were captured. The losses of the Slovenian self-defense forces amounted to 19 killed and 182 wounded. 12 foreign citizens also died.
The war ended with the EU-brokered Brijo Agreement signed on July 7, 1991, under which the JNA pledged to cease hostilities on Slovenian territory. Slovenia suspended the entry into force of the declaration of independence for three months.
Conflict in Croatia(1991-1995) is also associated with the declaration of independence by this republic on June 25, 1991. During the armed conflict, which in Croatia is called Patriotic War, Croatian forces confronted the JNA and local Serb formations supported by the authorities in Belgrade.
In December 1991, the independent Republic of Serbian Krajina was proclaimed with a population of 480 thousand people (91% Serbs). Thus, Croatia lost a significant part of its territory. Over the next three years, Croatia intensively strengthened its regular army, participated in the civil war in neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995) and conducted limited armed operations against the Serbian Krajina.
In February 1992, the UN Security Council sent the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) to Croatia. UNPROFOR was initially seen as a temporary force to create the conditions necessary for negotiations on a comprehensive settlement of the Yugoslav crisis. In June 1992, after the conflict intensified and spread to BiH, the mandate and strength of UNPROFOR were expanded.
In August 1995, the Croatian army launched a large-scale Operation Storm and in a matter of days broke through the defenses of the Krajina Serbs. The fall of Krajina resulted in the exodus from Croatia of almost the entire Serbian population, which amounted to 12% before the war. Having achieved success on their territory, Croatian troops entered Bosnia and Herzegovina and, together with Bosnian Muslims, launched an offensive against the Bosnian Serbs.
The conflict in Croatia was accompanied by mutual ethnic cleansing of the Serbian and Croatian populations. During this conflict, it is estimated that 20-26 thousand people died (mostly Croats), about 550 thousand became refugees, out of a Croatian population of about 4.7 million people. The territorial integrity of Croatia was finally restored in 1998.
It became the most widespread and fierce war in Bosnia and Herzegovina(1992-1995) with the participation of Muslims (Bosniaks), Serbs and Croats. The escalation of tensions followed the independence referendum held in this republic from February 29 to March 1, 1992, which was boycotted by the majority of Bosnian Serbs. The conflict involved the JNA, the Croatian army, mercenaries from all sides, as well as NATO armed forces.
The conflict ended with the Dayton Agreement, initialed on November 21, 1995 at the US military base in Dayton (Ohio) and signed on December 14, 1995 in Paris by Bosnian Muslim leader Alija Izetbegovic, Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic and Croatian President Franjo Tudjman. The agreement determined the post-war structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina and provided for the introduction of an international peacekeeping force under NATO command numbering 60 thousand people.
Immediately before the Dayton Agreement was developed, in August-September 1995, NATO aircraft conducted Operation Deliberate Force against the Bosnian Serbs. This operation played a role in changing the military situation in favor of the Muslim-Croat forces, who launched an offensive against the Bosnian Serbs.
The Bosnian War was accompanied by massive ethnic cleansing and massacres of civilians. During this conflict, about 100 thousand people (mostly Muslims) died, another two million became refugees, out of a pre-war population of BiH of 4.4 million people. Before the war, Muslims made up 43.6% of the population, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%.
Damage from the war amounted to tens of billions of dollars. Economics and social sphere BiH was almost completely destroyed.
Armed conflict in the southern region of Serbia Kosovo and Metohija(1998-1999) was associated with a sharp escalation of contradictions between Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians (now 90-95% of the province’s population). Serbia launched a large-scale military operation against Albanian militants Liberation Army Kosovo (KLA), who sought independence from Belgrade. After the failure of an attempt to reach peace agreements in Rambouillet (France), in early 1999, NATO countries led by the United States began massive bombing of the territory of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). The NATO military operation, undertaken unilaterally, without the sanction of the UN Security Council, lasted from March 24 to June 10, 1999. Large-scale ethnic cleansing was cited as the reason for the intervention of NATO troops.
The UN Security Council adopted resolution 1244 on June 10, 1999, ending the hostilities. The resolution provided for the introduction of the UN administration and an international peacekeeping contingent under NATO command (at the initial stage 49.5 thousand people). The document provided for the determination at a later stage of the final status of Kosovo.
During the Kosovo conflict and NATO bombing, it is estimated that about 10 thousand people (mainly Albanians) died. About a million people became refugees and displaced persons from Kosovo's pre-war population of 2 million. Most Albanian refugees, unlike Serb refugees, returned to their homes.
On February 17, 2008, the Kosovo parliament unilaterally declared independence from Serbia. The self-proclaimed state was recognized by 71 countries out of 192 UN member countries.
In 2000-2001 there was a sharp worsening situation in southern Serbia, in the communities of Presevo, Buyanovac and Medveja, the majority of the population of which are Albanians. The clashes in southern Serbia are known as the Presevo Valley conflict.
Albanian fighters from the Liberation Army of Presevo, Medveja and Bujanovac fought for the separation of these territories from Serbia. The escalation took place in the 5-kilometer “ground security zone” created in 1999 on the territory of Serbia following the Kosovo conflict in accordance with the Kumanovo military-technical agreement. According to the agreement, the Yugoslav side did not have the right to keep army formations and security forces in the NZB, with the exception of the local police, who were allowed to carry only light small arms.
The situation in southern Serbia stabilized after Belgrade and NATO reached an agreement in May 2001 on the return of the Yugoslav army contingent to the “ground security zone.” Agreements were also reached on an amnesty for militants, the formation of a multinational police force, and the integration of the local population into public structures.
It is estimated that several Serbian soldiers and civilians, as well as several dozen Albanians, died during the crisis in southern Serbia.
In 2001 there was armed conflict in Macedonia with the participation of the Albanian National Liberation Army and regular army Macedonia.
In the winter of 2001, Albanian militants began military guerrilla operations, seeking independence for the northwestern regions of the country, populated predominantly by Albanians.
The confrontation between the Macedonian authorities and Albanian militants was ended by the active intervention of the European Union and NATO. The Ohrid Agreement was signed, which granted Albanians in Macedonia (20-30% of the population) limited legal and cultural autonomy (official status of the Albanian language, amnesty for militants, Albanian police in Albanian areas).
As a result of the conflict, according to various estimates, more than 70 Macedonian soldiers and from 700 to 800 Albanians were killed.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti
16 years ago, on March 24, 1999, the NATO war against Yugoslavia began. Operation Allied Force, which lasted 78 days, was justified as a humanitarian intervention, was carried out without a UN mandate, and used depleted uranium ammunition.
To understand the history of the conflict, you should first learn about the collapse of Yugoslavia itself:
A brief overview of the wars in Yugoslavia from 1991 to 1999:
War in Croatia (1991-1995).
In February 1991, the Croatian Sabor adopted a resolution on “disarmament” with the SFRY, and the Serbian National Assembly of the Serbian Krajina (an autonomous Serbian region within Croatia) adopted a resolution on “disarmament” with Croatia and remaining part of the SFRY. The mutual intensification of passions and persecution of the Serbian Orthodox Church caused the first wave of refugees - 40 thousand Serbs were forced to leave their homes. In July, general mobilization was announced in Croatia and by the end of the year the number of Croatian armed forces reached 110 thousand people. Ethnic cleansing began in Western Slavonia. The Serbs were completely expelled from 10 cities and 183 villages, and partially expelled from 87 villages.
On the Serb side, the formation of a system of territorial defense and armed forces of Krajina began, a significant part of which were volunteers from Serbia. Units of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) entered the territory of Croatia and by August 1991 drove volunteer Croatian units from the territory of all Serbian regions. But after the armistice was signed in Geneva, the JNA stopped helping the Krajina Serbs, and a new Croat offensive forced them to retreat. From spring 1991 to spring 1995. Krajina was partially taken under the protection of the Blue Helmets, but the UN Security Council's demand for the withdrawal of Croatian troops from the zones controlled by the peacekeepers was not fulfilled. The Croats continued to undertake active military operations using tanks, artillery, and rocket launchers. As a result of the war in 1991-1994. 30 thousand people died, up to 500 thousand people became refugees, direct losses amounted to more than 30 billion dollars. In May-August 1995, the Croatian army carried out a well-prepared operation to return Krajina to Croatia. Several tens of thousands of people died during the hostilities. 250 thousand Serbs were forced to leave the republic. Total for 1991-1995 More than 350 thousand Serbs left Croatia.
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1991-1995).
On October 14, 1991, in the absence of Serb deputies, the Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the independence of the republic. On January 9, 1992, the Assembly of the Serbian People proclaimed the Republika Srpska of Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of the SFRY. In April 1992, a “Muslim putsch” took place - the seizure of police buildings and key facilities. The Muslim armed forces were opposed by the Serbian Volunteer Guard and volunteer detachments. The Yugoslav army withdrew its units and was then blocked by Muslims in the barracks. During the 44 days of the war, 1,320 people died, the number of refugees amounted to 350 thousand people.
The United States and a number of other states accused Serbia of inciting the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the OSCE ultimatum, Yugoslav troops were withdrawn from the territory of the republic. But the situation in the republic has not stabilized. War broke out between Croats and Muslims with the participation of the Croatian army. The leadership of Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into independent ethnic groups.
On March 18, 1994, with the mediation of the United States, a Muslim-Croat federation and a well-armed joint army was created, which began offensive operations with the support of NATO air forces bombing Serbian positions (with the approval of the UN Secretary General). The contradictions between the Serbian leaders and the Yugoslav leadership, as well as the blockade by the “blue helmets” of the Serbian heavy weapons, put them in a difficult situation. In August-September 1995, NATO air strikes that destroyed Serbian military installations, communications centers and air defense systems prepared a new offensive by the Muslim-Croat army. On October 12, the Serbs were forced to sign a ceasefire agreement.
The UN Security Council, by resolution No. 1031 of December 15, 1995, instructed NATO to form a peacekeeping force to end the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which became the first ever ground operation carried out with the leading role of NATO outside its area of responsibility. The role of the UN was reduced to approving this operation. The peacekeeping multinational force included 57,300 people, 475 tanks, 1,654 armored vehicles, 1,367 guns, multiple launch rocket systems and mortars, 200 combat helicopters, 139 combat aircraft, 35 ships (with 52 carrier-based aircraft) and other weapons. It is believed that by the beginning of 2000, the goals of the peacekeeping operation were largely achieved - a ceasefire came. But complete agreement between the conflicting parties did not take place. The refugee problem remained unresolved.
The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina claimed more than 200 thousand lives, of which more than 180 thousand were civilians. Germany alone spent 320 thousand refugees (mostly Muslims) from 1991 to 1998. about 16 billion marks.
War in Kosovo and Metohija (1998-1999).
Since the second half of the 90s of the twentieth century, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) began to operate in Kosovo. In 1991-1998 There were 543 clashes between Albanian militants and Serbian police, 75% of which occurred within five months last year. To stem the wave of violence, Belgrade introduced police units numbering 15 thousand people and approximately the same number of armed forces, 140 tanks and 150 armored vehicles into Kosovo and Metohija. In July-August 1998, the Serbian army managed to destroy the main strongholds of the KLA, which controlled up to 40% of the territory of the region. This predetermined the intervention of NATO member states, which demanded that Serbian forces stop their actions under the threat of bombing Belgrade. Serbian troops were withdrawn from the region and KLA militants again occupied a significant part of Kosovo and Metohija. The forced displacement of the Serbs from the region began.
Operation Allied Force
NATO aircraft bombed the city of Nisham. Yugoslavia, 1999 (Reuters)
In March 1999, in violation of the UN Charter, NATO launched a “humanitarian intervention” against Yugoslavia. In Operation Allied Force, 460 combat aircraft were used in the first stage; by the end of the operation, the figure had increased by more than 2.5 times. The size of the NATO ground force was increased to 10 thousand people with heavy armored vehicles and operational-tactical missiles in service. Within a month from the start of the operation, the NATO naval group was increased to 50 ships equipped with sea-based cruise missiles and 100 carrier-based aircraft, and then increased several times more (for carrier-based aircraft - 4 times). In total, 927 aircraft and 55 ships (4 aircraft carriers) participated in the NATO operation. NATO troops were served by a powerful group of space assets.
At the beginning of the NATO aggression, the Yugoslav ground forces numbered 90 thousand people and about 16 thousand police and security forces. The Yugoslav army had up to 200 combat aircraft, about 150 air defense systems with limited combat capabilities.
To strike 900 targets in the Yugoslav economy, NATO used 1,200-1,500 high-precision sea- and air-launched cruise missiles. During the first stage of the operation, these means destroyed oil industry Yugoslavia, 50% of the ammunition industry, 40% of the tank and automobile industry, 40% of oil storage facilities, 100% of strategic bridges across the Danube. From 600 to 800 combat sorties were carried out per day. In total, 38 thousand sorties were flown during the operation, about 1000 air-launched cruise missiles were used, and more than 20 thousand bombs and guided missiles were dropped. 37 thousand uranium shells were also used, as a result of the explosions of which 23 tons of depleted uranium-238 were sprayed over Yugoslavia.
An important component of the aggression was the information war, including a powerful impact on the information systems of Yugoslavia in order to destroy information sources and undermine the combat command and control system and information isolation of not only troops, but also the population. The destruction of television and radio centers cleared the information space for broadcasting by the Voice of America station.
According to NATO, the bloc lost 5 aircraft, 16 unmanned aerial vehicles and 2 helicopters in the operation. According to the Yugoslav side, 61 NATO aircraft, 238 cruise missiles, 30 unmanned aerial vehicles and 7 helicopters were shot down (independent sources give the figures 11, 30, 3 and 3, respectively).
In the first days of the war, the Yugoslav side lost a significant part of its aviation and air defense systems (70% of mobile air defense systems). Air defense forces and means were preserved due to the fact that Yugoslavia refused to conduct air defensive operation.
As a result of NATO bombing, more than 2,000 civilians were killed, over 7,000 people were injured, 82 bridges were destroyed and damaged, 422 missions educational institutions, 48 medical facilities, critical life support facilities and infrastructure, more than 750 thousand residents of Yugoslavia became refugees, without necessary conditions There are 2.5 million people left to live. The total material damage from NATO aggression amounted to over 100 billion dollars.
There is nowhere to go back. A woman stands in the ruins of her house, destroyed by a NATO airstrike. Yugoslavia, 1999
June 10, 1999 general secretary NATO suspended actions against Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav leadership agreed to withdraw military and police forces from Kosovo and Metohija. June 11 forces rapid response NATO entered the territory of the region. By April 2000, 41 thousand KFOR troops were stationed in Kosovo and Metohija. But this did not stop inter-ethnic violence. In the year after the end of NATO aggression in the region, more than 1,000 people were killed, more than 200 thousand Serbs and Montenegrins and 150 thousand representatives of other ethnic groups were expelled, about 100 churches and monasteries were burned or damaged.
In 2002, the Prague NATO summit was held, which legitimized any operations of the alliance outside the territories of its member countries “wherever it is required.” The need for the UN Security Council to authorize military action was not mentioned in the summit documents.
During the NATO war against Serbia on April 12, 1999, during the bombing of a railway bridge in the Grdelica area, a NATO F-15E aircraft destroyed the Serbian passenger train Belgrade - Skopje.
This incident received significant coverage in NATO's information war against Serbia.
The media of NATO countries have repeatedly shown falsified (intentionally accelerated) video recording of the destruction of the train as it passed over the bridge.
It was alleged that the pilot accidentally caught the train on the bridge. The plane and train were moving too fast for the pilot to make an intelligent decision, resulting in a tragic accident.
The uniqueness of the military conflict in Yugoslavia was that it included two “mini-wars”: NATO aggression against the FRY and internal armed confrontation on ethnic grounds between Serbs and Albanians in the autonomous region of Kosovo. Moreover, the reason for NATO’s armed intervention was the sharp escalation in 1998 of the previously sluggish ongoing conflict. Moreover, here we cannot ignore the objective fact of the constant, methodical escalation of tension in the cradle of Serbian culture - Kosovo - at first hidden, and then, starting from the late 1980s, almost openly hidden support from the West for the separatist aspirations of the Albanian population.
Having accused Belgrade of disrupting negotiations on the future of the rebellious region and of not agreeing to accept the humiliating ultimatum of the West, which boiled down to the demand for the actual occupation of Kosovo, on March 29, 1999, NATO Secretary General Javier Solana gave the order to the Supreme Commander of the bloc's allied armed forces in Europe, American General Wesley Clark, to begin military campaign in the form of an air operation against Yugoslavia, called “Allied Force”, which was based on the so-called “Plan 10601”, which provided for several phases of military operations. It is very noteworthy that the fundamental concept of this operation was developed back in the previous summer, 1998, and in October of the same year it was clarified and specified.
BYPASSED AND ADDED
Ruins blown up Orthodox Church in Kosovo. Yugoslavia, 1999
Despite the careful consideration of all direct and related issues related to the operation, the Western allies were faced with the fact of the crime they were committing. The definition of aggression adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 1974 (resolution 3314) clearly states: “The bombing by the armed forces of states of the territory of another state will be qualified as an act of aggression. No considerations of any nature, whether political, economic, military or otherwise, can serve as a justification for aggression.” But the North Atlantic Alliance did not try to obtain UN sanction, since Russia and China would still have blocked the draft Security Council resolution if it had been submitted to a vote.
However, the NATO leadership still managed to beat the battle of interpretations that unfolded within the UN in its favor. international law, when the Security Council, at the very beginning of the aggression, expressed de facto agreement with the operation, rejecting (three votes for, 12 against) a draft resolution submitted by Russia calling for a renunciation of the use of force against Yugoslavia. Thus, all grounds for formally condemning the instigators of the military campaign allegedly disappeared.
Moreover, looking ahead, we note that after the end of the aggression, at an open meeting of the Security Council, the chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in The Hague, Carla del Ponte, made a statement that in the actions of NATO countries towards Yugoslavia in the period from March 1999 there is no crime and that the accusations against the political and military leadership of the bloc are unfounded. The chief prosecutor also said that the decision not to begin an investigation into the accusations against the bloc was final and was made after a careful study by the tribunal experts of the materials presented by the government of the FRY, the Commission of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, a group of experts in the field of international law and a number of public organizations.
But, according to Alejandro Teitelbom, a representative of the Association of American Lawyers at the European headquarters of the UN in Geneva, Carla del Ponte “actually admitted that it is very difficult for her to take steps that run counter to the interests of the North Atlantic Alliance,” since the maintenance of the Hague Tribunal costs millions of dollars , and most of this money is provided by the United States, so in the event of such actions on her part, she may simply lose her job.
Nevertheless, sensing the precariousness of the arguments of the initiators of this military campaign, some NATO member countries, primarily Greece, began to resist the pressure of the military-political leadership of the alliance, thereby casting doubt on the possibility of carrying out a forceful action in general, since, in accordance with the NATO Charter, this requires the consent of all block members. However, Washington ultimately managed to crush its allies.
ACCORDING TO WASHINGTON'S SCENARIO
Bombing of the city of Niš by NATO aircraft. A woman shows a photograph of her relatives who died under NATO bombing. Nis, Yugoslavia. 1999
At the beginning of hostilities, the multinational group of NATO naval forces in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas consisted of 35 warships, including American, British, French and Italian aircraft carriers, as well as cruise missile carriers. 14 states took direct part in the NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia - the USA, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Canada, the Netherlands, Turkey, Norway and Hungary. The main burden fell on the shoulders of US Air Force and Navy pilots, who accounted for over 60% of sorties in the first month and a half of the campaign, although American aircraft made up only 42% of NATO combat aircraft in the region. Aviation from Great Britain, France and Italy were also relatively actively involved. The participation of nine other NATO countries in the air strikes was minimal and pursued rather a political goal - to demonstrate the unity and cohesion of the allies.
Essentially, it was precisely according to Washington’s scenario and, as subsequent analysis of military operations confirmed, in accordance with instructions coming directly from the Pentagon, that the content and duration of the phases of the entire campaign were repeatedly adjusted. This, naturally, could not but cause discontent on the part of some of the most influential European allies of the United States. For example, representatives of France in the North Atlantic Alliance, which made essentially the second largest contribution to the air campaign, openly accused Washington of “at times acting outside the framework of NATO.” And this despite the fact that France, which did not fully delegate its powers to NATO (since it formally remained outside military structure block), previously reserved for herself the privilege of special information regarding all the nuances of conducting an air campaign.
After the end of hostilities, the Supreme Commander of NATO in Europe, the American General Clark, frankly admitted that he did not take into account the opinion of “those who, out of nervousness, sought to change the targets of attacks.” Under the veil of the imaginary “unity” of the positions of the member states of the alliance, in reality there were severe contradictions according to the scheme operational actions in the Balkans. At the same time, the main opponents of escalation were Germany and Greece. German Defense Minister Rudolf Scharping, already during the conflict, even made a statement that the German government “is not going to have a discussion on this matter” at all. For its part, the Greek leadership, which itself had been faced with Albanian, including criminal, expansion for many years and had difficulty agreeing to “punish” Belgrade for “oppressing the Albanian minority,” began to artificially create obstacles to the expansion of military operations. In particular, Athens did not allow its Turkish “ally” to use Greek airspace as part of the campaign against Yugoslavia.
The unceremoniousness of the Americans, who took control of the entire campaign into their own hands, sometimes caused bewilderment, bordering on open discontent, even among Washington’s devoted “friends.” For example, Ankara was, to put it mildly, “surprised” that, without its consent, the NATO military leadership announced the allocation of three air bases located in Turkey to the alliance. Even the facts of the refusal of the command of the Canadian contingent - Washington’s most devoted Anglo-Saxon ally - to bomb “dubious” targets in Yugoslavia, indicated by the leadership of the bloc, from Ottawa’s point of view, became public.
The states newly admitted to NATO - the Czech Republic and Poland (not to mention Hungary, which took direct part in the hostilities) - unlike their “senior” European colleagues in the alliance, on the contrary, demonstrated full support for the “flexible” position of Brussels and Washington and declared about readiness to provide its military infrastructure for the solution of any NATO tasks as part of the aggression against Yugoslavia.
Bulgaria, Romania, Albania and Macedonia showed even greater zeal in the hope of Washington’s loyalty in resolving the issue of upcoming admission to NATO, having proactively announced the provision of their airspace (some in full, some in part) at the disposal of the bloc’s air forces. In general, as follows from the comments of experts, the basis of many frictions within the alliance was Washington’s lack of awareness of the European allies regarding specific plans within each phase of the campaign.
TESTS AND INTERNSHIPS
A Serbian family looks at a house destroyed by NATO bombing. Yugoslavia, 1999
Pragmatic Washington, as in most other wars of modern times, not particularly taking into account the position of the allies, tried to “squeeze” the maximum out of the military conflict, “killing two birds with one stone”: the overthrow of the regime of Slobodan Milosevic, which suddenly became an obstacle to the implementation of the White House plans in the Balkans and experimentation with new means of armed struggle, forms and methods of military action.
The Americans made full use of the opportunity, testing the latest air- and sea-launched cruise missiles, cluster bombs with self-aiming combat elements and other weapons. Modernized and new systems for reconnaissance, control, communications, navigation, electronic warfare, and all types of support were tested in real combat conditions; issues of interaction between types of armed forces, as well as aviation and special forces (which, perhaps, was the most significant in light of the latest at that time directives of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld personally; the concept of “unity”) were worked out.
At the insistence of the Americans, carrier aircraft were used as part of reconnaissance and strike combat systems and were only “carriers of ammunition.” They took off from air bases in the United States, NATO countries in Europe and aircraft carriers in the seas surrounding the Balkans, delivered cruise missiles pre-targeted at specific critical points of targets to launch lines beyond the reach of Yugoslav air defense systems, launched them and left for new ammunition. In addition, other techniques and forms of using aviation were used.
Later, taking advantage of the forced delay in the operation, again on the initiative of the Americans, the NATO command began to practice so-called “combat training” for reservist pilots. After 10–15 independent sorties, which was considered sufficient to gain combat experience, they were replaced by other “trainees.” Moreover, the military leadership of the bloc was not at all bothered by the fact that this period saw the largest number of almost daily, as NATO members themselves admit, gross mistakes by the alliance’s aviation when striking ground targets.
The point was that the leadership of the unit's air force, in order to minimize the loss of flight personnel, gave the order to “bomb” without descending below 4.5–5 thousand meters, as a result of which compliance with international standards of warfare became simply impossible. The large-scale disposal of surplus obsolete bomb weapons by striking a wide range of mainly economic targets in Yugoslavia, which took place in the final phase of the operation, did not contribute to compliance with international law.
In total, which is not denied in principle by NATO representatives, during the hostilities NATO aircraft destroyed about 500 important objects, of which at least half were purely civilian. At the same time, the losses of the civilian population of Yugoslavia were calculated, according to various sources, from 1.2 to 2 and even more than 5 thousand people.
It is quite remarkable that in comparison with the gigantic economic damage (according to Yugoslav estimates - approximately 100 billion dollars), the damage to Yugoslavia's military potential was not so significant. For example, there were few air battles (which was explained by the Serbs’ desire to maintain their air force in the face of the overwhelming superiority of alliance aviation), and the FRY’s losses in aviation were minimal - 6 aircraft in air battles and 22 at airfields. In addition, Belgrade reported that its army lost only 13 tanks.
However, NATO reports also contained much larger, but by no means impressive numbers: 93 “successful strikes” on tanks, 153 on armored personnel carriers, 339 on military transport, 389 on gun and mortar positions. However, these data were criticized by analysts from the intelligence and military authorities of the alliance itself. And in an unpublished report from the US Air Force, it was generally reported that the confirmed number of destroyed Yugoslav mobile targets was 14 tanks, 18 armored personnel carriers and 20 pieces of artillery.
By the way, in turn, the Serbs, summing up the results of the 78-day resistance, insisted on the following NATO losses: 61 aircraft, seven helicopters, 30 UAVs and 238 cruise missiles. The Allies, naturally, refuted these figures. Although, according to independent experts, they are very close to the true ones.
BOMB, NOT FIGHT
Without sometimes questioning the truly “experimental” nature of military actions on the part of the allies led by the Americans, one cannot but agree with those independent experts who state serious mistakes made by NATO, which generally consisted in underestimating the level of operational-strategic and tactical thinking of commanders and officers of the Yugoslav armed forces, who deeply analyzed the manner of actions of the Americans in local conflicts, primarily in the 1990–1991 war in the Persian Gulf. It is no coincidence that the alliance command was forced to reconsider the general concept of the operation, first being drawn into a protracted and extremely costly military conflict, and then bringing up for discussion the question of the advisability of conducting the ground phase of the operation, which was not initially planned.
Indeed, during the preparatory period of the aggression, there were no large-scale regroupings of NATO ground forces in the states adjacent to Yugoslavia. For example, ground forces with a total strength of only 26 thousand people were concentrated in Albania and Macedonia, while, according to Western analysts, in order to conduct an effective operation against the sufficiently trained armed forces of Yugoslavia, it was necessary to create a ground force with a total number of at least 200 thousand people .
NATO's May revision of the general concept of the operation and the proposal of urgent preparations for the ground phase of hostilities once again provoked sharp criticism from influential European members of the alliance. Thus, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder decisively rejected the proposal to send Allied ground troops to Kosovo as leading to a dead end. France also rejected this idea, but under the pretext that it did not have a sufficient number of “free” ground forces at that time.
And American legislators expressed doubt about the effectiveness of this idea. According to estimates by the US Congressional Budget Office, to the already existing monthly operating costs of $1 billion, if the ground phase is carried out, at least another $200 million will have to be added just for the maintenance of one ground division.
But perhaps most of all the allies, primarily the Americans, were concerned about the possible losses in the event of ground battles with Yugoslav units and formations. According to American experts, the damage in military operations in Kosovo alone could range from 400 to 1,500 military personnel, who could no longer be hidden from the public. Like, for example, carefully concealed data on the losses, estimated to be several dozen NATO pilots and special forces, who “advised” the Yugoslav Albanians and participated in the rescue of downed NATO Allied Air Force pilots. As a result, the US Congress voted against consideration of a resolution authorizing the American president, as the supreme commander of the armed forces, to use ground forces during a military operation against Yugoslavia.
One way or another, things did not come to ground hostilities between the Allies and Yugoslav troops. However, from the very beginning of the aggression, the NATO command in every possible way stimulated the activity of the “Kosovo Liberation Army,” which consisted of Kosovo Albanians and representatives of the Albanian diasporas in the United States and a number of European countries. But the KLA formations, equipped and trained by NATO, in battles with Serbian border guards and regular units of the Armed Forces showed themselves to be far from in the best possible way. According to some media reports, the largest operation of Albanian militants against Serbian troops in Kosovo, in which up to 4 thousand people took part, carried out in parallel with the NATO air campaign, ended in the complete defeat of the KLA units and the retreat of their remnants to the territory of Albania.
Under these conditions, the NATO leadership was left with the only way to resolve the problem it had created: to hit Yugoslavia with all the might of its potential. This is what it did, sharply increasing its air force grouping in the last ten days of May to 1,120 aircraft (including 625 combat aircraft) and adding two more aircraft carriers to the four on combat duty in the seas adjacent to Yugoslavia, as well as five carriers of cruise missiles and a number of others ships. Naturally, this was accompanied by an unprecedented intensity of raids on military and civilian targets on Yugoslav territory.
Relying on its colossal air power and presenting Belgrade with a choice - the loss of Kosovo or the total destruction of the economy, economic and humanitarian disasters - NATO forced the leadership of Yugoslavia to capitulate and at that time solved the Kosovo problem in its own interests. Undoubtedly, the Serbs would not have been able to resist the NATO group in open battles if the aggression continued, but they were quite capable of waging a successful guerrilla war on their territory for some time with the full support of the population, as was the case during the Second World War. But what happened happened!
CONCLUSIONS HAVE BEEN MADE
This military campaign once again demonstrated how dependent its European partners in the NATO bloc are on the United States. It was the Americans who were the main impact force aggressor - 55% of combat aircraft (by the end of the war), over 95% of cruise missiles, 80% of dropped bombs and missiles, all strategic bombers, 60% of reconnaissance aircraft and UAVs, 24 reconnaissance satellites out of 25 and the overwhelming majority of precision weapons belonged to the United States.
The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee, Italian Admiral Guido Venturoni, was even forced to admit: “Only by using the means provided by an overseas partner, European NATO countries can conduct independent operations, while the creation of a European component in the field of defense and security remains a noble idea.”
One cannot help but pay tribute to the leadership of the North Atlantic Alliance, which not only noted the fact that the United States’ European allies were sharply lagging behind their “big brother” in all aspects of the development of military potential, but also, based on the results of the anti-Yugoslav campaign, took a number of drastic measures leading to correcting the negative Brussels' (and primarily Washington's) view of the situation. First of all, it was decided to speed up the protracted process of reforming the Armed Forces European countries- participants in the bloc, within which the lion's share of the costs provided for in the national budgets for the purchase of weapons and military equipment will be allocated to the purchase of high-precision weapons (in the USA, of course), to reform the logistics support system and much more.
But, according to NATO strategists, the most main task The US allies in Europe continue to be faced with the creation of such formations of expeditionary forces that could participate on equal terms with the Americans in creating the model of world order that Washington needs.
Which swept this country after the death of its leader J.B. Tito. For a long time, from 1945 to 1980, Tito and the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (UCY), led by him, exercised strict control over any kind of nationalism in this country. Within the framework of a single state, it was possible to avoid national and religious conflicts, despite the fact that the population of each of the republics of multi-religious Yugoslavia had its own national identity and its own national leaders.
After Tito's death in 1980, the decomposition of the party began, followed by the collapse of the multinational state, which dragged on for many years. Independent states appeared on the map of Europe: the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Federation of Serbia and Montenegro), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia. And after the referendum on independence in Montenegro, the last remnants of the former federation disappeared into history. Serbia and Montenegro also became independent states.
It cannot be assumed that the clash of national interests of the former Yugoslav peoples was inevitably bound to result in a bloody war. It could have been avoided if the political leadership of the national republics had not so zealously speculated on the national question. On the other hand, so many grievances and mutual claims had accumulated between the individual components of the Yugoslav Federation that politicians needed a great deal of prudence not to take advantage of them. However, prudence was not shown, and a civil war began in the country.
At the very beginning of the Yugoslav conflict, the political leadership of Serbia stated that in the event of the collapse of Yugoslavia, the borders of the multinational republics should be revised so that the entire Serbian population lived on the territory of “greater Serbia.” In 1990, almost a third of Croatia was inhabited by Serbs, and more than a million Serbs lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatia opposed this, in favor of maintaining the previous borders, but at the same time it itself wanted to control those areas of Bosnia that were populated predominantly by Croats. The ethnogeographical distribution of Croats and Serbs in Bosnia did not allow for reasonable and agreed upon boundaries to be drawn between them, which inevitably led to conflict.
Serbian President S. Milosevic advocated the unification of all Serbs within the borders of one state. It should be noted that in almost all the former Yugoslav republics the key idea of this period was the creation of a mono-ethnic state.
Milosevic, who initially controlled Serb leaders in Bosnia, could have prevented the bloodshed, but did not. In order to finance the war, his regime essentially robbed the population of Serbia by conducting an emission, which resulted in high inflation. In December 1993, for a bill of 500 billion dinars, you could buy a pack of cigarettes in the morning, and in the evening, due to inflation, a box of matches. The average salary was $3 per month.
- 1987 - election of Serbian nationalist Slobodan Milosevic as leader of the SKY.
- 1990-1991 - collapse of SKYU.
- 1991 - declaration of independence of Slovenia and Croatia, the beginning of the war in Croatia.
- 1992 - declaration of independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The beginning of confrontation between the population of the republic, which consisted of Muslim Bosnians (44%), Catholic Croats (17%), Orthodox Serbs (33%).
- 1992-1995 - war in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- 1994 - the beginning of NATO air raids on the positions of the Bosnian Serbs.
- August - September 1995 - NATO carried out a massive air raid on military installations and communications of the Bosnian Serbs, depriving them of the ability to resist.
- November 1995 - The Dayton Accords (USA) were signed, according to which Bosnia (consisting of 51% Muslims and 49% Orthodox Christians) was divided into Bosnian-Muslim and Bosnian-Serbian republics, but within its former borders. A unified Bosnia was to be represented by some common institutions of the two republics. The 35,000-strong contingent of NATO troops with the participation of the United States was obliged to monitor compliance with the agreements on Bosnia. Persons suspected of crimes were subject to arrest (primarily this concerned the leaders of the Bosnian Serbs Slobodan Milosevic and Radko Mladic).
- 1997 - at a meeting of the federal parliament of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, S. Milosevic was elected president.
- 1998 - the beginning of the radicalization of the separatist movement in Kosovo.
- March 1998 - The UN Security Council adopts a resolution on an arms embargo against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
- June 1998 - Kosovo Albanians refuse dialogue with Serbia (they will boycott meetings 12 more times).
- August 1998 - NATO approved three options for resolving the Kosovo crisis.
- March 1999 - the beginning of bombing of targets in Serbia and Montenegro (in violation of the Charter of Paris, of which Yugoslavia was a member, and all UN principles). Belgrade announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the USA, Great Britain, Germany and France.
- April 1999 - Russian statement in which the bombing of Yugoslavia was regarded as NATO aggression against a sovereign state.
- May 1999 - The Hague Tribunal begins hearings on Belgrade's claim against 10 NATO countries involved in the bombing of Yugoslavia. (The lawsuit was later dismissed.)
- June 1999 - the withdrawal of military and police from Kosovo began. NATO Secretary General X. Solana gives the order to suspend bombing. Material from the site
The Yugoslav conflict became the greatest tragedy of humanity in the entire post-war period. The number of those killed was in the tens of thousands, ethnic cleansing (the forced expulsion from a certain territory of people of a different ethnicity) gave birth to 2 million refugees. War crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by all parties to the conflict. During the hostilities, 5 thousand tons of bombs were dropped on the territory of Yugoslavia, and 1,500 “cruise missiles” were fired. Neither the diplomatic efforts of the West nor economic sanctions yielded results - the war lasted for several years. Ignoring the endless negotiations and ceasefire agreements, Christians (Catholics and Orthodox) and Muslims continued to kill each other.
The political confrontation between such superpowers as the USA and the USSR, which lasted from the mid-40s to the early 90s of the last century, and never developed into a real military conflict, led to the emergence of such a term as cold war. Yugoslavia is a former socialist country that began to disintegrate almost simultaneously with the main reason that triggered the outbreak of the military conflict was the desire of the West to establish its influence in those territories that previously belonged to the USSR.
The war in Yugoslavia consisted of a whole series of armed conflicts that lasted for 10 years - from 1991 to 2001, and ultimately led to the collapse of the state, as a result of which several states independent from each other were formed. Here the fighting was of an interethnic nature, where Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania and Macedonia took part. The war in Yugoslavia began due to ethnic and religious considerations. These events that took place in Europe became the bloodiest since 1939-1945.
Slovenia
The war in Yugoslavia began with an armed conflict on June 25 - July 4, 1991. The course of events began with the unilaterally proclaimed independence of Slovenia, as a result of which hostilities broke out between it and Yugoslavia. The republic's leadership took control of all borders, as well as the airspace over the country. Local military units began to prepare to capture the JNA barracks.
The Yugoslav People's Army met fierce resistance from local units. Barricades were hastily erected and the paths followed by the JNA units were blocked. Mobilization was announced in the republic, and its leaders turned to some European countries for help.
The war ended as a result of the signing of the Brion Agreement, which obliged the JNA to end the armed conflict, and Slovenia had to suspend the signing of the declaration of independence for three months. Losses on the part of the Yugoslav army amounted to 45 people killed and 146 wounded, and from the Slovenian army, respectively, 19 and 182.
Soon the administration of the SFRY was forced to admit defeat and come to terms with independent Slovenia. In conclusion, the JNA withdrew its troops from the territory of the newly formed state.
Croatia
After Slovenia gained independence from Yugoslavia, the Serbian part of the population living in this territory tried to create a separate country. They motivated their desire to disconnect by the fact that human rights were allegedly constantly violated here. For this, the separatists began to create so-called self-defense units. Croatia regarded this as an attempt to join Serbia and accused its opponents of expansion, as a result of which large-scale hostilities began in August 1991.
Over 40% of the country's territory was engulfed in war. The Croats pursued the goal of freeing themselves from the Serbs and expelling the JNA. Volunteers who wanted to gain the long-awaited freedom united in detachments of guards and did their best to achieve the declaration of independence for themselves and their families.
Bosnian War
1991-1992 marked the beginning of the path to liberation from the crisis of Bosnia and Herzegovina, into which Yugoslavia dragged it. This time the war affected not only one republic, but also its neighboring lands. As a result, this conflict has attracted the attention of NATO, the EU and the UN.
This time, hostilities took place between Bosnian Muslims and their co-religionists advocating autonomy, as well as Croats and armed Serb groups. At the beginning of the uprising, the JNA was also involved in the conflict. A little later, NATO forces, mercenaries and volunteers from different sides joined in.
In February 1992, a proposal was put forward to divide this republic into 7 parts, two of which were to go to Croats and Muslims, and three to Serbs. This agreement was not approved by the head of the Bosnian forces. Croat and Serb nationalists said that this was the only chance to end the conflict, after which Civil War in Yugoslavia continued, attracting the attention of almost all international organizations.
Bosniaks united with Muslims, thanks to which Bosnia and Herzegovina was created. In May 1992, the ARBiH became the official armed forces of the future independent state. Hostilities gradually ceased due to the signing of the Dayton Agreement, which predetermined the constitutional structure of modern independent Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Operation Deliberate Force
This code name was given to the aerial bombardment of Serbian positions in the military conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was carried out by NATO. The reason for the start of this operation was the explosion in 1995 at the Markale market. It was not possible to identify those responsible for terrorism, but NATO blamed the incident on the Serbs, who categorically refused to withdraw their weapons from Sarajevo.
Thus, the history of the war in Yugoslavia continued with Operation Deliberate Force on the night of August 30, 1995. Its goal was to reduce the possibility of a Serb assault on the safe zones that NATO had established. Aircraft from Great Britain, the USA, Germany, France, Spain, Turkey and the Netherlands began to strike Serbian positions.
Over the course of two weeks, more than three thousand NATO aircraft sorties were carried out. The bombing resulted in the destruction of radar installations, ammunition and weapons depots, bridges, telecommunications links and other vital infrastructure. And of course the main objective was achieved: the Serbs left the city of Sarajevo along with heavy equipment.
Kosovo
The war in Yugoslavia continued with the armed conflict that broke out between the FRY and Albanian separatists in 1998. Residents of Kosovo sought to gain independence. A year later, NATO intervened in the situation, as a result of which an operation called “Allied Force” began.
This conflict was systematically accompanied by human rights violations, which led to numerous casualties and a massive flow of displaced people - a few months after the start of the war, there were about 1 thousand killed and wounded, as well as more than 2 thousand refugees. The result of the war was a UN resolution in 1999, according to which the prevention of renewed fire and the return of Kosovo to Yugoslav rule was guaranteed. The Security Council ensured public order, supervision of mine clearance, demilitarization of the KLA (Kosovo Liberation Army) and Albanian armed groups.
Operation Allied Force
The second wave of the North Atlantic Alliance invasion of the FRY took place from March 24 to June 10, 1999. The operation took place during ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. Later he confirmed the responsibility of the security services of the FRY for crimes committed against the Albanian population. In particular, during the first Operation Deliberate Force.
The Yugoslav authorities witnessed 1.7 thousand dead citizens, 400 of whom were children. About 10 thousand people were seriously injured, and 821 were missing. The signing of the Military-Technical Agreement between the JNA and the North Atlantic Alliance put an end to the bombing. NATO forces and the international administration took control of this region. A little later, these powers were transferred to ethnic Albanians.
Southern Serbia
The conflict between the illegal armed group, which was called the “Liberation Army of Medveja, Presevo and Bujanovac”, and the FR Yugoslavia. The peak of activity in Serbia coincided with the aggravation of the situation in Macedonia.
The wars in the former Yugoslavia almost ceased after agreements were reached between NATO and Belgrade in 2001, which guaranteed the return of Yugoslav troops to the ground security zone. In addition, agreements were signed on the formation of police forces, as well as an amnesty for militants who decided to voluntarily surrender.
The confrontation in the Presevo Valley took the lives of 68 people, 14 of whom were police officers. Albanian terrorists carried out 313 attacks, killing 14 people (9 of them were saved, and the fate of four remains unknown to this day).
Macedonia
The cause of the conflict in this republic is no different from previous clashes in Yugoslavia. The confrontation took place between Albanian separatists and Macedonians throughout almost the entire 2001.
The situation began to escalate in January, when the republic's government witnessed frequent incidents of aggression towards the military and police. Since the Macedonian security service did not take any action, the population threatened to independently purchase weapons. After this, from January to November 2001, there were constant clashes between Albanian groups and Macedonians. The bloodiest events took place in the city of Tetovo.
As a result of the conflict, there were 70 casualties on the Macedonian side, and about 800 Albanian separatists. The battle ended with the signing of the Ohrid Agreement between Macedonia and Albanian forces, which led the republic to victory in the struggle for independence and the transition to establishing peaceful life. The war in Yugoslavia, the chronicle of which officially ends in November 2001, in fact continues to this day. Now it has the character of all kinds of strikes and armed clashes in the former republics of the FRY.
Results of the war
IN post-war period The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia was created. This document restored justice to the victims of conflicts in all republics (except Slovenia). Specific individuals, not groups, who were directly involved in crimes against humanity were found and punished.
During 1991-2001 About 300 thousand bombs were dropped throughout the territory of the former Yugoslavia and about 1 thousand missiles were fired. In the struggle of individual republics for their independence big role played by NATO, which intervened in time in the arbitrariness of the Yugoslav authorities. The war in Yugoslavia, the years and events of which claimed the lives of thousands of civilians, should serve as a lesson for society, since even in our modern life it is necessary not only to appreciate, but also to maintain such fragile peace throughout the world with all our might.
A series of military conflicts caused by the collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). The borders of the republics that made up the SFRY were drawn based on political and economic considerations. As a result, Serbs inhabited large areas outside of Serbia in two republics - Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1990, the growth of nationalist sentiments in the republics of the federation led to the collapse of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. In the Republic of Serbia it was renamed the Socialist Party. It was headed by S. Milosevic. Many national leaders advocated Westernization and received support from Western countries. In Croatia, nationalists led by F. Tudjman won the elections. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, where Muslim, Croat and Serbian populations lived, each national-religious group had its own leaders, but in the capital Sarajevo, the Muslim leader A. Izetbegovic gained the greatest influence, relying on the support of both Western states and Islamic countries. The Muslim community was opposed by the Serbian community, led by R. Karadzic. Now Yugoslavia was not bound by the power of one party. On June 25, 1991, Slovenia and Croatia withdrew from the SFRY. The Yugoslav army tried to take these republics under its control, but encountered resistance from trained military formations created by nationalist parties. After ten days of war, the Yugoslav army was forced to stop operations in Slovenia, since Croatia was in its rear. Fighting broke out on the territory of Croatia, the Yugoslav army managed to occupy the areas in which the Serbs lived. In November 1991, the Serbs captured the city of Vukovar in Croatia. The independence of the republics that separated from Yugoslavia was quickly recognized by Western countries, and the Yugoslav army had to withdraw from Croatian territory. However, the Serbs created an independent republic of Serbian Krajina here, and its militia continued to defend its territory from the Croatian army.
In 1991-1992, all republics left Yugoslavia except Serbia and Montenegro. The last two created the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) on April 27, 1992. The collapse of the country led to new bloody conflicts. In 1992, a bloody war broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina between Muslims, Croats and Serbs. Muslims and Croats created the Izetbegović government, which was recognized by the UN. The Serbs refused to submit to this government and advocated the annexation of the Serbian regions of Bosnia to the FRY. A civil war began, during which the West and Muslim countries supported Muslims and Croats, and the FRY supported the Serbs. Both sides carried out bloody ethnic cleansing to expand the areas that would come under their control after the war. Military success accompanied the Serbs; they besieged the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo. Every now and then armed struggle broke out between Muslims and Croats, but they managed to agree on a joint fight against the Serbs. The UN has declared an arms embargo on Bosnia and Herzegovina. This ban was violated; weapons were supplied from abroad to all parties to the conflict. International sanctions were introduced against Yugoslavia (ban on trade in fuel, etc.). An international tribunal was created at The Hague to investigate war crimes in the former Yugoslavia.
In May and August 1995, with the assistance of NATO aircraft, the Republic of Serbian Krajina in Croatia was defeated.
On November 21, under US pressure, an agreement was agreed in Dayton and signed in Paris on December 14, 1995 (the Dayton Agreement), which granted autonomy to the Serbs and Croats within Bosnia and Herzegovina. The territory of the Autonomous Serbian Republic was greatly reduced. To maintain peace, peacekeeping troops were sent to Bosnia, the bulk of which are NATO troops. A Russian battalion was also present among these troops. The activities of the Hague Tribunal continued, Milosevic and Karadzic were arrested, and a number of Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian military leaders were convicted. The wars in the former Yugoslavia have significantly worsened international situation in the 90s and contributed to strengthening the position of the NATO bloc as a “world policeman”, which considers itself to have the right to resolve world conflicts by force at its own discretion. In 1999, NATO carried out bombings of Yugoslavia.
