Sufism - what is it? Mystic-ascetic movement in Islam. The direction of classical Muslim philosophy. Fundamentals of Sufi teachings
History of Sufism
Sufism does not and never had a beginning, and it never arose as a historical phenomenon. It has always existed because light has always been the inner essence of man. In its highest manifestations, this light can be called the knowledge of God, divine wisdom - Sufism. Sufism has always been practiced, and its heralds have been people of heart; therefore it also belongs to the founding masters, just like everyone else.
Tradition says that Adam was the first prophet, which means that the first person on earth already possessed wisdom. Among the human race there have always been those who passionately strived for wisdom. They sought out people of spirit who had retired into solitude and, serving them with reverent devotion, learned wisdom from them. Few could understand what the divine chosen ones taught, but the greatness of their personalities attracted many. And the people said to the prophet: "We will follow you, we will serve you, we will believe in you and will never follow another".
And the saints answered them: “My children, we bless you. Do this; do that. You should live this way and not otherwise.”. And they gave people commandments and laws that could instill meekness and humanity in them. This is how religions were born.
But over time, the truth was lost. The desire to dominate has increased, followed by an overzealous attitude towards one's community and prejudice towards others; Thus wisdom was gradually lost. The religion was established, although not without difficulty, but the world at that time and at that stage of development was such that it could not accept Sufism. His followers were ridiculed, despised and persecuted; they had to hide from the world in solitude and mountain caves.
When Christ came, the Sufis were among the first to heed his teachings, and in the time of Muhammad, the Sufis of Mount Jafa were the first to respond to his call. One interpretation of the origin of the word "Sufism" connects it with the name of Mount Jafa. It was Muhammad who opened the way for the Sufis to Arabia, where they gained numerous followers, including Siddiq and Ali.
From there Sufism penetrated into Persia. However, wherever Sufis expressed their free views, they invariably suffered from attacks from the dominant religion. The only outlet was poetry and music. It was the great Sufi poets - Hafiz, Rumi, Shams of Tabriz, Saadi, Omar Khayyam, Nizami, Farid, Jami and others - who conveyed the wisdom of Sufism to the world.
Rumi's works are so majestic that whoever reads and understands them will receive knowledge of the entire world philosophy. At sacred Sufi gatherings, the chanting of his poems is part of the worship service. The destinies of Sufis are admired for their piety and humanity.
The art of Sufism reached perfection in India, which is very for a long time was a country of highest spirituality. For Hindus, mysticism was a science and the main goal of life. This was the case in the time of Mahadeva and later in the time of Krishna. Once in this fertile soil, the seed of Sufism gave a wonderful flower, and many great talents - for example, Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti - became its followers. Music was an important part of their lives and spiritual practice. These Sufis perfected the art of devotional worship and idealization; their consciousness was able to free itself from the shackles of the external plane of existence.
Translators and admirers of Persian poets, while extolling them, often make the same mistake - they do not pay tribute to their predecessors. It turns out that these poets created everything from scratch and inherited nothing from the past. But Persia, surrounded by Greece and Egypt, Arabia and India, adopted the ideas of Plato and Socrates, the teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism, especially their poetry and philosophy. Everything in the world is in one way or another influenced by all other phenomena, so it would be a mistake to say that Sufism originated in Persia and never existed before; The existence of Sufism during the time of Muhammad and even earlier is undeniable, as is the fact that the prophet willingly talked with Sufis and consulted with them. Over time, Sufism has been imbued with many religions and has, in turn, influenced many of them. Although only a tiny part of the ancient written heritage has survived, and even this little has been almost entirely destroyed by erroneous interpretations, we can still discern traces of ancient Sufism.
In ancient times, the Brotherhood of Purity - Safa - was founded. His main point was this: know yourself and you will know God. These brothers, who knew their nature, were Sufis, because Sufism is the doctrine of self-knowledge.
Sufis and yogis can understand each other, since there is only one difference between them: yogis strive more for spirituality, and Sufis - for humanity. The yogi believes that it is better to be God; the Sufi thinks that one should be human because if one has only the spirit left in one, he is always in danger of falling - our body tends to fall. The Sufi believes that since our body has needs and desires, we must satisfy them; he believes that a person can receive from life everything that is in his power to get, but if something is beyond his power, there is no need to be upset. But there is no essential difference between a yogi and a Sufi. There are no differences in wisdom, and if any are seen, they are only differences in form.
Joy is in unity; not in a separate spiritual or material sphere, but in both of them. Why does a person cross his arms? Because where there is a couple, the joy is in the union. A person has two eyes; when they are closed, joy comes. When the air passes through both nostrils while breathing, the mystic becomes ecstatic. Why do people shake hands? Why do they rejoice in a hug? Why do they crave communication with a scientist or a sage? Because one soul attracts another and unites with it. Joy does not lie in spirituality alone, but in the unity of the spiritual and the material.
It’s not good to be completely animalistic; and being entirely an angel is also not fruitful, because we are created with the body of an animal that needs to eat, drink and sleep and which has feelings and a thousand needs. We must come to terms with the harmless of our animal qualities and discard the dangerous ones. There is nothing wrong with eating or drinking, but tearing food from someone else's plate when it is on our plate is what is wrong.
The central theme in the life of a Sufi is the freedom of the soul. The great Persian Sufi poet Rumi said: "The soul on earth is imprisoned and remains in it as long as it lives on earth". Whether conscious or unconscious by the person himself, in everyone there lives a sharp longing of the soul, striving to break out of captivity, to break the fetters that shackle it. The answer to this impulse should be the acquisition of spirituality.
There are two types of Sufis: Rind and Salik.
First, rind, beautifully embodied in Fitzgerald's translation from Omar Khayyam:
O my beloved, fill the cup,
Which will clear today
From regrets of the past and fear of the future.
Well, tomorrow I can be myself, with yesterday’s seven thousand years*.
* From the creation of light.
It implies the following: take the best from the current moment; Living in the present moment, you will see eternity most clearly. But if your view is obscured by the world of the past and the world of the future, you no longer live in eternity, but in a limited world. In other words, we must live not in the past and not in the future, but in the eternal. It is here and now that we can try to comprehend happiness, which is the acquisition of freedom of the soul.
This main topic the works of Sufi poets, who can be called rinds. Their lives are not constrained by so-called principles, unlike the lives of the orthodox. They are free from all fanaticism, all dogmas and regulations that dominate humanity. But at the same time, these are people of high ideals and perfect morality, deep thinking and very developed consciousness. They lead a life of complete freedom in this captive world, where everyone living is a slave.
Among the Sufis there are saliks who meditate and reflect on ethics, living according to correct principles. Life teaches them, directs them on the right path, and they remain in piety and self-denial. The path of the Salik is to understand the essence of religion - any religion that a person can profess - and follow it in his own way. Salik uses the same religious concepts as orthodox, and participates in the same ceremonies, but for him they have a different meaning. Each line of scripture has a special meaning for the Salik because he sees it in a special light.
All sublime and refined thoughts about God, man and life can only be understood in connection with the evolution of man, which is why those Sufis, who are called saliks, first of all accept any religion and through it come to harmony with other people, and then find in this religion true wisdom is interpreted.
For the most part, Sufi literature is written in such a way that a person who is not familiar with its inner, hidden meaning can be discouraged. If we take the verses of Hafiz, we will notice that there is hardly any mention of God in them. If we turn to poetry Omar Khayyam, which the Western world values so highly, we will see that he always writes about the same thing: about wine, about his beloved, about the cup and solitude. Someone will ask: “What kind of spirituality is in all this? He only talks about wine and a cup! If this is spirituality, I feel sorry for humanity!” Yes, there is little piety expressed in these verses. But in Jami’s poetry there is no piety and piety at all, just as there is none in the poems of hundreds of other Sufi poets - great sages and mystics. They believed that having once been known as spiritual people, they would be forced to always appear as spiritual people, look like spiritual people, speak like spiritual people, and they feared that on this path their freedom would be lost, and they themselves would be branded as hypocrites.
Sufism
In the East there are three main philosophical traditions: Sufism, Vedanta and Buddhism. The teachings of Sufism were expounded by the prophets of Israel: Abraham, Moses, David, Jonah and others, Zarathustra, Christ, Muhammad; these and other prophets were from the lands of Syria, Arabia, Persia, Egypt and from what is now Turkey and southeastern Russia.
Sufism is an ancient teaching of wisdom and humility, which gave rise to many cults of a mystical and philosophical nature. Its roots lead to ancient tradition, which existed in Egypt and became the source from which all other schools of initiation emerged. Sufism has always represented this tradition and continued its path in the realm of silence and peace.
In India, the teachings of Sufism were divided into four schools:
1. Naqshbandia, in which the main role is played by symbolism, rituals and rituals.
2. Qadiriya, who taught wisdom based on the Islamic religion of the East.
3. Suhrawardiya, taught the mystery of life, revealed through metaphysical knowledge and practices of self-control.
4. Chishtiya, who represented the spiritual ideal in the field of poetry and music.
These four branches gave rise to numerous sprouts that penetrated into Arabia, Turkey, Palestine, Tatar lands, Russian Turkestan, Bukhara, Afghanistan, India, Siberia and other areas of Asia.
In each school, the goal remains the same, only the methods of achieving it change. The highest goal of every Sufi school was and remains the achievement of that perfection that Jesus Christ preached and about which the Bible says: “...be perfect, as your Heavenly Father is perfect.” The method of Sufism is basically always the same - getting rid of one's "I". But what kind of “I”? Not the real, but the false “I”, on which a person depends and on the basis of which he considers himself to be someone different from others. Having abandoned this false "I", he gives the opportunity to his true Self to manifest itself in visible world. The Sufi method allows the human soul to reveal itself, the true Self - the eternal one, to whom all strength and beauty belong.
Sufism realized that the images of Ahuramazda and Ahriman personify the principle of good and the principle of evil. One may also find them in the words of Christ or in the Koran, as well as in the Zend Avesta. He understood what was behind the ideas about angels and came to the idealization of God and the Teacher as the bearer of the divine mission. It can be called Jewish mysticism, if we neglect the influence that Christianity had on it. It can be called Christian wisdom if we neglect the influence of Islamic wisdom. It can be called the internal component of Islam, if we neglect the influence of other philosophical systems such as Vedanta and Buddhism. This is why Sufism is so comprehensive, perfect and universal.
Sufi nature worship was born under the influence of the teachings of Zarathustra.
His penchant for sacrifice is a lesson from Abraham.
He owes his miraculous power to Moses.
Warning of future dangers, he introduces Noah, the greatest watchman of the past.
His rejection of asceticism goes back to Solomon, and sacred music recalls the songs of David.
The desire for self-sacrifice is based on the example of Christ; the influence of the personality of Muhammad is visible in humanity.
This is why a Sufi is a student of every mentor, a follower of every religion, a student of wisdom in all its aspects. That is why, despite his spiritual achievements, he remains open to the world.
Many people say, “We only believe in Moses or Christ.” Others claim to believe only in the Vedas or other ancient scriptures. But for a Sufi it does not matter who exactly said this or that; the essence of what was said is important. If he finds truth in the words of Zarathustra, he accepts it; if he encounters the truth in Kabbalah, he accepts it too. He recognizes the word of Christ and the Bible, he sees the truth in the Koran. He accepts Vedanta - there have been greater disciples of Vedanta among the Sufis than many Hindus. In all the scriptures he sees one.
Dara, Aurangzeb's brother, was one of the first among foreigners to study the Vedas and helped spread the knowledge contained in them. During Akbar's reign, Christian churches, Jewish synagogues and Muslim mosques were built in his lands - and he visited them all. This is convincing proof of his Sufi views. When the great poet Kabir died, Hindus and Muslims began to dispute with each other the right to see him off on his last journey. Hindus wanted to cremate the body, and Muslims wanted to bury it. Both declared that he belonged to their faith. The Sufi sees the truth in every faith. He will never say that this or that religion is not his. Both Hindus and Muslims come to the tombs of great Sufi saints - for example, to the tomb of Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti in Ajmir.
The Sufi sees truth in all its forms. If someone invites a Sufi to go to a Christian church and offer prayer, he will do so willingly. If someone else invites him to the synagogue and asks him to pray as the Jews do, he will be completely ready for it; and being among Muslims, he will perform namaz with them. In the Hindu temple he sees the real God, the living God instead of an idol; and the Buddhist temple inspires him, and does not blind him with idolatry. And yet the true mosque of the Sufi will be in his heart, in which the Beloved lives, the one who is worshiped equally by both Muslims and kafirs.
Today, the task of the Sufi Movement is to establish better understanding between individuals, peoples and races, and to help those who seek to find the truth. Its main position is to establish the awareness of the divinity of the human soul; This is why Sufi teaching was given.
Misunderstanding exists not only between East and West, or Christians and Muslims who passed on the experience of Sufism to the West, but between Christians themselves, as well as between people in general. Sufism as a school came from the East to the West, but Sufism as a message came to earth from above. In this sense, Sufism belongs neither to the East nor to the West. Sufi esoteric teaching is based on the tradition of the ancient school of Sufism, which existed throughout different historical stages, but the Sufi Message has its own tradition. This is more than school: it is life itself; it is the answer to the prayer of all mankind.
Sufism is a religion if someone wants to learn faith from it; it is philosophy if anyone wants to learn wisdom from it; it is mysticism for the one who strives to be guided by it in the revelation of his soul. And yet he himself is above all these things. He is light, he is life, nourishing every soul and elevating the mortal to immortality. He is a message of love, harmony and beauty. This is a divine message. This is the message of the era, and the message of the era is the answer to the call of every soul. This message, however, is not contained in words, but in divine light and energy that heals souls, giving them peace and the peace of God.
Sufism is neither deism nor atheism, since deism means belief in God, who is unattainably far away in heaven, and atheism means existence without belief in God. A Sufi believes in God. Which God exactly? In God, from whom he himself came, God in himself and around him; as the Bible says, we live, move and have our being in God. This teaching is the teaching of Sufism.
The Sufi believes in God as the ideal Self, within the true life, as the collective Consciousness, and also as the Lord of both worlds, the Master doomsday, the Inspirer of the straight path, as in the One from Whom everything came and to Whom everything will return.
In reality there cannot be multiple religions; there is only one. There cannot be two truths and there cannot be two rulers. Just as there is only one God and one religion, so there is only one ruler and one truth. Weak spot a person always lies in the fact that he considers as truth only what is familiar, and what he is not accustomed to hearing or thinking about scares him. Like a traveler lost in a foreign country far from home, the human soul wanders among phenomena and things that are not familiar to it. But the path to perfection means rising above borders, striving to such a height from where the eye can no longer distinguish the borders of individual countries or continents, but sees the whole world as a whole. The higher you rise, the more spacious the horizon becomes.
A Sufi does not prescribe principles to anyone, but this is not like in ordinary life, where not to have principles means to be a very sinful person. Some wonder: how can one follow the teachings of Sufism if it does not have certain norms and principles. The answer is simple: what is good for one person can be very bad for another. For some it is very good to be a monk and sit all day in a church or mosque, but for others this is not good - he may need to go to cafes and restaurants and understand the meaning of the experience gained there.
In the East, in a place where respect is to be shown, people cover their heads with a hat or turban, while in the West, in the same cases, they should remove the hat, that is, everything is done exactly the opposite. In the East, before entering a Hindu temple, a mosque or another sacred building, it is necessary to take off your shoes; in the West it is not allowed to go to church barefoot. If the Brahmins had to wear heavy shoes, like the Europeans wear, they would feel sick, they would constantly suffer from fatigue; their shoes should be light and simple; , so that it can be taken off and put on without problems. The prescriptions of each religion were given in accordance with a specific time and place.
People fight endlessly over principles; they declare that they stand firmly for such and such principles and that these principles make them better than those people who adhere to other standards. But for the Sufi there is no good or bad here; his only morality is to be kind to others. This is what the world cannot understand because humanity always wants principles and wants someone to tell them what is good and what is bad. But we see things as good or bad depending on our point of view, which means that this is what we should educate in the first place. A Sufi fills everything he touches with spirituality. He sees only unity and harmony. The Sufi's religion is only love, so the precepts of other religions are nothing for him. He leaves the struggle for principles to those who are unable to see beyond the narrow framework of their own ideas.
When the word “philosophy” is pronounced, a person immediately remembers the philosophy of Vedanta, say, or Plato and Aristotle. These and other philosophers studied the physical universe, matter; they figured out how spirit becomes matter and comprehended metaphysics. But in their philosophical systems we find neither ideal worship nor true self-forgetfulness, whereas in Sufism we encounter the idealization of God.
These Sufis believe in the help of every type of worship; but even idolatry will not force a Sufi to become a kafir, an unbeliever, since at the same time he worships everything else besides the idol. The world may seem to be worshiping an idol, when in reality it is worshiping God in everything. An idolater is one who says: “This is God, and that is not God; God is in this idol, but there is no God in you.”
The Sufi also has his own idol, but it is a living idol. Once on the street of Hyderabad I met a fakir. He turned to me: “Hey, murshid, how to get there?” I was studying philosophy at the time and thought: “He called me a murshid; he must have seen some greatness in me!” But then I heard him ask the policeman: “Hey, murshid, is this the road to such and such a house?” - and realized that he was saying “murshid” to everyone. When I asked my murshid for an explanation for this, he replied that a fakir is at the level of fana-fi-sheikh, when the student sees his murshid in everything and everyone. One who has reached this stage learns from everything, from every creature, old or young, foolish or wise, even from a cat, from a dog, from a tree, from a stone. And a person who is able to see God only in one single object, and not in all things and beings, is an idolater. And only then does a person see God in everything, he really sees God.
Sufism is a philosophy among religions and a religion among philosophies. In the circle of religions, it appears as a philosophy due to the freedom of thought characteristic of Sufism; Among philosophical systems, it appears to be a religion because of the Sufis' idealization of God, dedication to him, and worship. Others called these people Sufis; they themselves did not give themselves any name. They were free and pure from definitions, from names and labels, from the isolation of individuality, and therefore the world called them Sufis, from the root saf, which in Arabic means “pure”.
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Sufism, which originally arose in Iraq (the Basri school), became especially popular in Khorasan, from where its ideas and practices spread throughout Central Asia. The Baghdad school of Sufism also enjoyed significant influence.
Between the 8th and 10th centuries, “professional” Sufis appeared, indulging in ascetic and mystical practices while at the same time continuing to practice their regular craft. They were called “fakirs” (in Arabic - beggars) and “dervishes” (the same in Persian). Fakirs and dervishes often lived in special monasteries called “khanaka”, “ribat”, “zaviya” and “tekke” and were usually built near the graves of holy saints and mosques. In the cities, Sufi communities were closely associated with the guilds of artisans. At the head of such monasteries were spiritual mentors (in Arabic - sheikhs, in Persian - pir), who enjoyed unquestioned authority among their murid students.
Most characteristic features the practices of the early Sufis and ascetics were meditation on the meaning of the verses of the Koran, strict adherence to its instructions and the Sunnah of the Prophet, repeated additional prayers, vigils and fasts, renunciation of all worldly things, piety in Everyday life, rigorism, scrupulous distinction between what is permitted and what is prohibited, refusal to cooperate with secular authorities, trust in the will of God, the cult of poverty, work to satisfy the minimum needs of life with the distribution of the rest of the income to the poor, repentant sentiments, satisfaction with one’s earthly share, patience and humility.
Sufiev is distinguished by a deep analysis of the subtlest experiences of a person, keen attention to their inner awareness of religious truths. We find these features already in one of the founders of Sufism - al-Hasan al-Barsi (8th century), the creator of the doctrine of “hearts and minds” and human intentions. In the statements and sermons of the students and followers of al-Hasan al-Barsi Rabah ibn Amr, Rabi and al-Adawiya, ad-Davani (late 8th - early 9th centuries), motives of selfless love for God and the desire to get closer to him appeared. From that time on, these motives became distinctive feature Sufi thought, giving it a pronounced mystical shade. Representatives of Sufism gave a detailed description of the mystical “states” (akhwal) and “stations” (makamat). The internal transformation of a Sufi was considered as a “path” (at-tariq), through which he is spiritually cleansed from “worldly filth” and gets closer to the deity. In the doctrine of “intentions” the emphasis was placed on the sincerity and selflessness of the Sufi, in connection with which methods of self-control were developed. A Sufi, argued al-Haddad (died 873), should not differ in appearance from the people around him. On the contrary, if those around him condemn him for the sins he commits, he should only rejoice at this, for the scolding and condemnation of the crowd is true evidence that he is following the right path. After all, all the prophets and saints, whose true intentions were unknown to the mob, were subjected to abuse and condemnation. The social base of early Sufism consisted mainly of city dwellers: small traders, artisans. People with a theological education, as a rule, acted as theorists of “Sufi science.” The most important element Sufism, already at an early stage, was the mastery of its theory and practice under the guidance of a sheikh or pir, without which the murid risked becoming, according to popular belief, a disciple of the devil. The largest Sufi mentors and ascetics, famous for their knowledge of theosophy and piety, began to be called “saints” (wali) or “divine poles” (aktab, singular - kutb).
At the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century, when the popularity of Sufism sharply increased and the number of its followers increased, works were created, the authors of which developed the main provisions of “Sufi science”. At this time, classical manuals on “Sufi science” appeared, from which the works of al-Sarraj al-Tusi (died in 988), al-Kalabazi (died in 990 or 995), and Abu Talib al-Makki came down to us (died 990), al-Sulami (died 1072), al-Hujwiri (died between 1072 and 1076-77), al-Ansari (died 1089) and others. Biographies of early Sufis were also compiled. The appearance of classical works on Sufism by al-Qusheyri dates back to this time.
The ambiguity of Sufism is due, in our opinion, to the fact that the Sufi teaching about the direct communication of the believer with God contributes to the religious zeal of the masses. It is not without reason that “prayer” and “asceticism” are singled out as the fundamental principles of Sufi theory and practice. Apparently, one should not overestimate the disdainful attitude of Sufism towards a number of Sharia regulations in the early stages of its development, since the reaction to such facts on the part of the majority of Sufis themselves was very negative. The basis for the rapprochement between Sufism and Sunni dogmatism was irrationalism. Mysticism, which is integral part any religion, did not separate, but on the contrary, brought it closer to traditionalism (Salafism). It is not without reason that one of the systematizers of Sufism, the famous poet Abdallah al-Ansari, and such a major theorist as Abd al-Qadir Jilani (died in 1166) were considered as ardent opponents of kalam.
It should be borne in mind that in Sufi practice, guidance from a Sufi sheikh and following his example in life was mandatory. Therefore, one should not overestimate the so-called denial of intermediaries between God and the believer, attributed to “heretic” Sufism.
It is necessary to take into account that in Islam there is no institution of the church, and therefore the significance of the doctrine of direct communication between the believer and God, that is, the denial of the idea of mediation, which is of fundamental importance, for example, in Christianity, is not significant for the realities of Islam. The anti-Abbasid position of Sufism is largely explained by dissatisfaction with social orders, corruption and acquisitiveness of rulers and their associates. They proceeded from the idealized norms of social life of the Medina state from the time of the Prophet Muhammad. Their teaching about the equality of people before God largely reflected the Islamic traditional ideas of mutual assistance of all members of the community, the demand addressed to the wealthy to help the poor, the categorical prohibition of “riba” - usurious interest, a call for justice, etc. Social criticism of Sufism is based on the religious-utopian doctrine of the reorganization of society, which, first of all, was associated with religious and moral self-improvement. Ultimately, the answer to the injustices of this world was asceticism and mysticism. The mystical concept of solitude with God was seen as aimed at achieving a “better” and “just world.” The focus on the individual existence of a person led to the creation of many psychological systems aimed at human self-improvement.
Culture in Sufism
Already in the 9th-10th centuries a peculiar public organization Sufiev.
Passing the tariqah required special knowledge, without which a person trying to achieve higher spiritual insights could pay severely by losing his health and mind. Therefore, already in early eras, a custom was established according to which those who wished to follow the path of spiritual quest chose a spiritual mentor who bore the title of sheikh or pir (elder), a person who had already passed the tariqa. A person who comes under the leadership of a sheikh was called a murid, ar (willing) - in essence, one who submitted his will to the sheikh. First, the murid went through a series of tests, then the murid did many ascetic exercises, fasted, stayed awake at night, read the Koran, spent forty days in meditation and prayer, being completely alone. The sheikh rebuilds the murid's thinking to figurative, symbolic thinking and begins to again develop in him perseverance and will, capable of overcoming any obstacles. In turn, the sheikhs, engaged in experimental psychology, developed such properties as reading thoughts, the ability to induce a hypnotic state in a murid, etc. Such properties caused a huge increase in the authority of the sheikh and contributed to an increase in the number of his followers. When the sheikh saw that he could not teach the murid anything new, he gave him permission (ijaz), which gave the murid the right to gather students and continue the work of his teacher. Great importance Sufis attached importance to the achievement of an ecstatic state, which was considered a special Divine grace, therefore, it is not surprising that in their circles it was already early era They searched intensely for means that could help induce ecstasy. One of these remedies was soon recognized as the most effective. It was music, instrumental and especially vocal, combined with artistic expression. Listening to music was introduced into practice by a number of sheikhs and received the name sama" (Arab.
hear). Sama" for Sufis is the sound that changes internal state listener (Sharhi Taarruf. 1351). “Sama” is the flight of the human soul towards its original basis, which the traveler succeeds only through real, internal ecstasy. Among Sufi authorities there were different opinions regarding the permissibility of participation in “sama”, but, generalizing everything, we can say that engaging in “sama” is only allowed those who have a good heart and mortified flesh. Those who are deprived of these signs should engage in prayer and fasting. Later, dancing also joined. Sama was used not only at meetings of the dervish community, but also at the so-called “majlis” (open meetings). In addition, when speaking at majlises in front of the broadest masses of people, sheikhs actively used parables, fairy tales, and folk jokes. Such conversations captivated the listeners, at the same time the sheikhs brought the theoretical basis they needed to the story, the parable, interpreted it in relation to the main topic of their sermon and ensured that the interpretation they needed became the main interpretation of the parable for the widest circle.
Thus, Sufi literature begins to emerge, which ultimately goes back to the Majlis. Since the main theme of Sufi poetry was the fixation of Hala or mystical insight, the most characteristic feature which is short-term, not subject to logical definition, the sayings of some Sufis begin to take the form of a special abstruse language, and, often, remain incomprehensible to an outsider, not a Sufi. Special dictionaries of Sufi poetic terms are being created. It is believed that the mystical effect of the seven stories of Khoja Nasreddin studied in the correct sequence, the authors of which are Sufis, is so great that it is enough to prepare the student for insight. Despite the heterogeneity and ramifications of the teachings of Sufism, there are usually two directions in it: extreme and moderate. The moderates included Ghazali and Junaid, who believe that a Sufi should not go beyond the boundaries of Sharia, all his statements and deeds should comply with the prescriptions of the Koran and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad. The extreme supporters of Sufism are Sufis who take the position of “vadhati wujud” (unity of existence), who consider Truth (God) and nature in unity. “What was before everyone and will always remain; It has the clarity of water, but it is not water; This is the essence without a veil, which puts on a veil only for minds unable to comprehend. O Creator of all forms, who, like a through wind, flows through all forms, without being frozen in any one. "
Sufism is based on the idea that the universe consists of 7 “realms of existence.” We are talking about the multidimensionality of space.
The subtlest spatial dimension, which Sufis call Zat, is the Abode of God in the aspect of the Creator. The Creator and all the diversity of His Creation (in Sufi terminology - Sifat) form the Absolute. The Creator permeates the entire Creation with His Love.
The multidimensional human organism, being similar in its structure to the multidimensional structure of the Absolute, can reveal in itself more subtle “types of being.” This is done through the process of self-knowledge and self-improvement.
Thus, only through comprehension of his true essence can a person achieve direct perception of God and gain unity with Him. This is very succinctly expressed by one of the hadiths of the Sunnah, which says: “Whoever knows himself will know God.” On final stages of such comprehension, individual human consciousness merges with the Divine Consciousness. This ultimate goal is described in the Sufi tradition as the highest state of consciousness Baqi-bi-Allah (Eternity in God). In the Hindu and Buddhist traditions, this term corresponds to Kaivalya, Mahanirvana, Moksha.
Love is at the heart of Sufism(mahabba, hubb). Sufis even sometimes speak of their teaching as a “hymn of Divine Love” and call it tassa-wuri - “love-vision”. Love is seen in Sufism as the force that leads to a constant strengthening of the feeling of inclusion in God. This process leads to the understanding that there is nothing in the world except God, who is both Lover and Beloved.
One of the basic principles of Sufism- “Ishq Allah, Mabut Allah” (“God is Lover and Beloved”).
A truly loving Sufi gradually sinks, drowns and dissolves in the Creator - in his Beloved.
The perception of God as the Beloved comes from direct, immediate experience. Sufis describe it as follows. When a person travels a certain distance along the Path of Love, God begins to help the seeker much more actively, attracting him to His Abode. And then a person begins to feel more and more clearly the reciprocal Divine Love.
Let us trace how such love leading to God develops, based on the ideas of Jalal ad-Din Rumi.
It happens:
1) through the development of emotional, heartfelt love for everything that is most beautiful and harmonious in the world;
2) through active, sacrificial, love-service to people;
3) then - through expanding the circle of this love to all manifestations of the world without distinction; Sufis say about this: “If you make differences between things that come from God, you are not a person of the spiritual Path. If you think that a diamond will exalt you, and a simple stone will humiliate you, then God is not with you”;
4) this developed love for all elements of Creation is redirected to the Creator - and then the person begins to see, in the words of Rumi, that “the Beloved is in everything.”
Obviously, this concept of Love is identical to those presented in the Bhagavad Gita and the New Testament: the same main milestones, the same emphasis. True love is considered in Sufism, as well as in the best spiritual schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity, as the only force that can lead to God.
The attitude of Sufis to worldly activities
Sufi sheikhs often live in the world, engaging in the most ordinary worldly activities. They can run a shop, a workshop, a forge, write music, books, etc. This happens because Sufis are convinced that there is no need for complete solitude or hermitage in order to go to God.
They argue that there is nothing in worldly activity that separates you from God, if you do not become attached to its fruits and do not forget about Him. Therefore, at all stages of spiritual ascent, a person can remain included in social life. Moreover, it is this that, in their opinion, provides enormous opportunities for improvement. If we consider each life situation as an educational one, you can communicate and even live side by side with the most “terrible” and depraved people, be exposed to the grossest influences - and not suffer from this, on the contrary, maintain constant cheerfulness and serenity, improving through these social contacts offered by God.
Training in Sufism
As for murid students, Sufi sheikhs emphasize that not everyone who would like to become a Sufi can become one, not everyone is ready to accept Sufi teachings. Sufis say that you cannot teach anyone anything: you can only show the Path, but everyone must go through it themselves. Therefore, if a candidate disciple does not yet have the ability to use the teaching for his spiritual development, there is no point in learning, teaching spills like water into sand.
A person’s readiness to accept teaching is determined by the sheikh. Moreover, provocative methods are often used for this. Those aspiring to become students are placed in various situations, sometimes harmless conversations are imposed on them in order to determine their level of development. If a candidate student shows promise, then the sheikh, observing him for some time, determines his individual characteristics and the level to which the teaching can be perceived by a novice adept. In accordance with this, the murid is given certain tasks for the entire period of study and is given the necessary sections of the teaching.
Having determined the specifics of the student’s spiritual development, the sheikh can send him to other orders, brotherhoods, training centers. The neophyte begins to move from sheikh to sheikh - and so gradually comprehends and assimilates the program. After a long and varied training, the murid again appears before his first sheikh. He gives him the final “internal cutting”, “internal polishing” and then the so-called ijaza (permission) to continue the tradition of the sheikh and preach the teachings.
The scope of Sufi training includes both the esoteric side and the exoteric side, i.e. murids improve not only ethically, intellectually, psychoenergetically, but also master techniques, comprehend the secrets of the worldly craft and art that the sheikh owns. This subsequently helps them in life.
Stages in Sufi training
The initial stage of spiritual practice - Sharia (law) - is associated with strict observance of all religious precepts. Preliminary passage of Sharia is a prerequisite for entering the path of spiritual improvement.
Actually, esoteric training begins at the next stage - tariqah (path, road). Passing the tariqa is associated with mastering a number of maqam steps.
In ethical terms, the maqams of the tariqa involve a fundamental revaluation of values. They are associated with the identification of one’s own vices and repentance (tawbah), abstinence from the forbidden (zuhd), the strictest caution in distinguishing between what is permitted and what is not permitted (wara), and the renunciation of non-spiritual attachments and desires (faqr). The murid also learns patience (sabr), “swallowing bitterness without expressing displeasure.”
The constant memory of death, the awareness of its inevitability, leads the murid to a series of rethinkings. Including - to the appearance of careful attitude to the remaining time on Earth. Thinking about death is a powerful way to combat unwanted habits and attachments. Al-Ghazali said: “When something in the world pleases you and attachment is born in you, remember death.”
At the stage of tariqa, intensive intellectual work is also carried out. Sheikhs constantly offer students new topics to understand, talking with them about the basics of teaching. Murids get acquainted with a variety of literary sources, rich parable material, educational stories etc.
As he passes through all the steps of this stage, the murid acquires an unlimited desire to achieve unity with the Creator and enters the state of rida, defined by the Sufis as “peace in relation to predestination,” i.e. into a state of serenity, complete calmness regarding what is happening.
Those who have successfully completed the maqams of tariqa are given the opportunity to move further along the path of marefat - meditative comprehension of God. At this stage, further ethical “polishing” of the ascetic occurs, there is a constant improvement of his love (in a variety of aspects), wisdom and strength. Having passed this stage, a Sufi really comprehends the multidimensionality of space, the “illusory” nature of the values of material existence, and receives a living experience of communication with God. As an arif (knower), he can receive initiation as a sheikh.
SUFISM
SUFISM
(Arabic at-tasawwuf) - a mystical-ascetic movement in Islam. The word "Sufi" goes back to Arabic. the word "suf" (coarse wool). Sufis were originally those Muslim mystics who wore clothes made of coarse wool as a form of self-denial and repentance. The main components of S. are considered to be asceticism and. S., as a broad ideological movement, embraced literature (poetry), (music), philosophy, history, and folk culture. The principle of “universality” was one of the main ones in S. A representative of almost any religious direction in Islam, a supporter of any legal school, a peasant or artisan, a warrior or scribe, or a representative of the nobility could be a Sufi. Therefore, among the Sufis there are such subtle psychologists as Muhasibi (. 857); world-famous writers and poets: Abdallah al-An-sari (d. 1089), Sanai (d. c. 1190), Farid ad-din Attar (d. c. 1220), Jalal ad-din Rumi (d. c. 1273); famous authorities of Sunni Islam: al-Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328); philosophers: al-Suhrawardi and Ibn Araba. S. does not always coincide with the personal stories of the Sufis themselves, who turned to S. and then “left”, broke with him, powerless to change the course of his development. Not belonging to any of the countries, but spreading from Gibraltar to the Indus, S. turned out to be an entire era in the development of literature and philosophy of the countries of the Muslim East. Time of the beginning of the spread of S. - lane. floor. 8th century, the apogee of its heyday in different regions of the Near and Middle East is dated differently. The period of its formation is 8-10 centuries. - characterized by sharp criticism of existing orders and the dominant ideology. 11th century - period S. from the Nile to the Euphrates, the era of its systematization. One of the first who tried to formulate a holistic doctrine of S. was al-Qusheyri (d. 1072). During this period, the socio-religious orientation of the S. movement received systematized doctrinal design. In the 12th century S. is becoming popular in all spheres of society. There are frequent cases of Sunni authorities turning to S.; Sufi orders begin to form. According to the principles of the teachings of the famous Sufi Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. 1166), the Qadariyya order was created. Sufi literature is born (Sanai, mind. 1190). 13th - 15th centuries - the heyday of Sufi orders, in particular the Mevleviya order, which was based on the principles of the famous poet Jalal ad-din Rumi. The beginning of the flowering of Sufi literature is also associated with the name of Rumi.
This period is generally characterized by a conciliatory position towards the ruling dynasties. However, a kind of “social alienation” continues to remain, which is especially clearly visible in Sufi literature. Sufi practice implied withdrawal from real life, passiveness towards the world. People who turned to S. believed that the worldly world is devoid of beauty and joy, justice and freedom, that human capabilities are extremely limited, therefore one should abandon worldly affairs and take the path of asceticism and quest “ better world" They deeply felt the nature of “evil” and elevated it to an ahistorical force. They attached importance to criticism and denial of everything earthly. The interpretation of evil and human suffering as inevitable on this earth led to the idea of searching for the “true world of love.” Since in real earthly conditions it is impossible to realize the social ideal of “the domination of love and goodness,” the “righteous” was transferred to heaven. The heavenly one replaced the earthly one.
The Sufi teaching about the direct communication of the believer with God contributed to the religious zeal of the masses. It is not without reason that “” and “asceticism” were singled out as the fundamental principles of Sufi theory and practice. Apparently, one should not overestimate S.’s disdainful attitude towards a number of Sharia regulations in the early stages of its development, because To such facts, the majority of the Sufis themselves were very negative. The basis for the rapprochement between S. and Sunni dogmatism was. Mysticism, which is an integral part of any religion, did not separate, but, on the contrary, brought S. closer to traditionalism (Salafism). It is no coincidence that one of the systematizers, S. Abdullah al-Ansari, and such a major theorist as Abd al-Qadir Jilani, were considered Hanbalites and ardent opponents of kalam. S. for a certain time was woven into the fabric of traditionalism and was associated with the most traditional science - hadith studies, and was also associated with fiqh (Muslim). In Sufi practice, guidance from the Sufi sheikh and his example in life was mandatory. Therefore, one should not overestimate the so-called. intermediaries between God and the believer, attributed to the “heretical” S. It must be taken into account that in Islam there is no institute of the church and therefore the significance of the doctrine of direct communication between the believer and God for the realities of Islam is not so significant. S.'s opposition throughout its history was largely explained by dissatisfaction with the social order, corruption, and acquisitiveness of the rulers and their associates. Sufis proceeded from the idealized norms of social life of the Medina state of the time of the Prophet. Their teaching about the equality of people before God largely reflected Islamic traditional ideas: mutual assistance of all members of the community, the requirement for the wealthy to help the poor, the categorical prohibition of riba (usurious interest), a call for justice, etc.
Social S. is based on the religious-utopian doctrine of the reorganization of society, which was associated with religious and moral self-improvement. The answer to the injustices of this world was asceticism, mysticism and politics. Mystical union with God was seen as aimed at achieving a “better” and “just world.” The focus on the individual person led to the creation of many psychological systems aimed at human self-improvement. Sufi mysticism was also fraught with danger for traditionalists.
Considering that S. is not whole and complete, it should be noted that several religious and philosophical ones can be distinguished in it. concepts of unity with God, for example, existential-ontological (al-Hallaj), epistemological-theoretical ( al-Ghazali), illumination (Shihab ad-din al-Suhrawardi), the doctrine of the unity of being (Mukhyi ad-din Ibn Arabi). Of course, the worldview of the Sufis could not help but be dominated by religious principles of worldview and worldview, however big role the principles of poetic and psychological worldview played a role. The peculiarity of S. is associated primarily with the peculiarity of the method on the basis of which Sufis tried to solve ideological problems. They should have been allowed to embrace the whole in its integrity, and the person - in his totality. The world, like a person, cannot be divided into parts. They can only be comprehended through intuition and insight. The originality of the method also predetermined the peculiarities of philosophizing: symbolism, allegory, "secret". The originality of the method made it possible to encrypt the fullness and concreteness of life and was associated with the recognition of the dominance in the world of the irrational principle, comprehended in divine love.
Philosophy: encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004 .
SUFISM
[from Arab. Sufi, lit. - wearing woolen clothes (suf - wool, coarse woolen fabric, hence - hair shirt as an ascetic); according to Biru-ni, from Greek- sage (probably artificial etymology)], mystical movement in Islam (both Shiism and Sunnism), originating at 8 V. on the territory modern Iraq and Syria. In different eras, S. was widespread from the north-west. Africa before owls outskirts of China and Indonesia. In general, S. is characterized by track. features: combination of idealistic. metaphysics (irfan) with a special asceticism. practice; doctrine of the gradual approach of the proselyte (murid) through mystic to the knowledge of God and the final merger with him; Means. the role of an elder mentor (murshid, feast) , leading mystical proselyte. ways (tariqa) until the moment of merging with God. Hence the Sufis’ desire for intuitive knowledge, “insights,” ecstasy achieved through special dances or endless repetition of prayer formulas, “mortification of the flesh” of the murid according to the instructions of the elder.
The foundations of S.’s teachings are laid down in 9 V. the Egyptian Zu-n-Nun al-Misri and the Baghdadian Abu Abdallah al-Muhasibi, the creator of the theory of introspection over the relationship between a person’s actions and his innermost intentions in order to establish the highest sincerity before God (contrasted with hypocrisy and ostentatious piety of the clergy). Muhasibi is credited with the doctrine of hal - instantaneous illumination, ecstatic. the state of a Sufi on the path to God. Malamatiya School (Nishapur, 9 V.) created the doctrine of combination internal purifications with deliberate ostentatious impiety (eg drinking), causing reproaches from outsiders, which should humble pride. Representative of the Baghdad school Junayd (mind. 909) created the doctrine of fan-mysticism. dissolution of the Sufi in God, leading to super-existence (tank)- eternity in absolute. Junaid suggested that the first stage be considered mystical. ways of Sharia - generally Muslim. religious law, the second - the Sufi path of tariqa and the third - haqiqat - mystic. comprehension of truth in God. For Junayd, one of the foundations of Islam is tawhid - not the verbal uniqueness of God, as in theology, but itself ascetic. the life of a Sufi in transcendental union with God. Another founder of Sufism Abu Yazid (mind. 874) created the doctrine of the triple gradation of consciousness of being (“I”, “You”, “He-self”). Abu Abdallah Hussein ibn Mansur al-Khalaj affirmed the real unity of the spirit of the Sufi with God and in moments of ecstasy exclaimed: “I am” (i.e. God); for this he was recognized as a heretic and executed in 922. In 10-11 centuries The Sufi teaching about tari-kata takes on a complete form, provisions on “parking” in the mystical language appear. path, about the triple gradation of true knowledge, ending with the merging of the knower and the known (god). As a result of reformist activities, Ghazali S. received a certain recognition from the orthodox Muslim clergy, who until 11-12 centuries pursued S. (although the “permissibility” of S. in Islam continues in the 20s V.) . Suhrawardi develops the doctrine of (mystical insight), Ahmed Ghazali (mind. 1126) , Ain al-Quzat Hamada-ni (mind. 1132) and Ibn al-Arabi (mind. 1240) - about vahdat al-wujud (unity of being): the Sufi must “throw off the chains of multiplicity” inherent in matter and come to unity with the absolute.
Over the course of 12 centuries of S.'s existence, various aspects of its teachings and its organization. forms were used by various class groupings. IN con. 19 - beginning 20 centuries bourgeois reformers in the countries of the East and modernizers of Islam waged a fight against the Sufi orders associated with feud. reaction. IN modern S.'s conditions in the East continue to play quite well. role.
Bertels E. E., S. and Sufiygkaya lit-pa, M., 1965 (lit.) ; Petrushevsky I.P., Islam in Iran in 7-15 centuries, L., 1966, With. 310-50; Religion and societies. countries of the East, M., 1974, With. 320-35 (lit.) ; Ritter H., Das Meer der Seele, Leiden, 1955; Trimingham J. S., The Sufi orders in Islam, Oxf., 1971.
Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editor: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 .
SUFISM
THE ETHICAL TEACHING of Sufism is also influenced by the cardinal thesis about the dual unity of the world order. Man, on the one hand, is determined by the eternal side of existence, but on the other hand, he himself determines it, since, although the influence correlates with the “non-existent,” i.e., the embodiments of things that make up the semantic continuum of Truth, the non-existent is in exact accordance with the very same itself as an existing thing. The impossibility of predetermining one's own destiny becomes, therefore, only another expression for the absolute autonomy of man. The same applies to the definition of the true agent for actions performed by a person, which is associated with issues that were vividly discussed in Kalama (see. Action): both man and God can with equal right be called genuine agents, and these points of view are not only not alternative, but are necessary as conditions for each other. The above applies to the consideration of the relationship between the temporal and eternity sides of existence within one atom of time. As for two even neighboring atoms of time, not to mention more distant ones, they are not connected by causality relations, which creates a fundamental difficulty in substantiating ethics. At the same time, Sufism adopted and developed numerous moral maxims that soften this “ethical nihilism” of high philosophy. In addition, in practical Sufism, especially in its mature period associated with the formation of various orders, various practices were developed for improving the adept, leading him along the “path” (tarika, also maslaq) to the highest stages of knowledge. They are based on the idea of the possibility of a graded increment of perfection as a result of the purposeful efforts of the adept, thereby focusing on the processuality of improvement, although they have little basis in the philosophical system of Sufism itself, where the concept of a “perfect person” is rather than ethical in nature (see. Perfection).
TOlerance. An essential implication of Sufi philosophy is the principle “it is impossible to worship anything other than the true God.” Since any thing in the eternal side of its existence is non-other in relation to the Truth, everything turns out to be essentially worship of the Truth. From this point of view, any religion is true, but at the same time mandatory condition, which does not claim exclusive possession of the truth, assuming thus. other confessions (including those that seem to exclude him, just as “polytheism” excludes “monotheism”) as their own condition. This, which has aroused and still arouses the extreme hostility of some traditionalist Muslim ideologists, appeals, coupled with the mystical component of Sufism, to the modern Western consciousness, which largely explains the popularity of Sufi ideas in the modern West.
Philosophical Sufism after Ibn "Araby developed under his decisive influence. The views of Ibn "Araby later became known as the concept of “unity of existence” (wahdat al-wujud), which found supporters in the Sufi environment in the person of such outstanding thinkers as al-Kashani ( d. 1329) and al-Jili (1325-1428), and met opposition from al-Simnan (d. 1336). Sufism had a great influence on Arab-Muslim philosophical thought, especially during the late Middle Ages, as well as on culture in general. Sufi ideas became more famous thanks to the work of such poets and thinkers as Farid ad-Din al-Attar (d. 1220), Ibn al-Farid (1181-1235), Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi (1207-73), etc. ., based on the Sufi symbolism of love, longing for the Beloved, etc. Lit.; Stepanyants M. T. Philosophical aspects of Sufism. M., 1987; Ibrahim T. K. Philosophical concepts of Sufism (review). - In the book: Classical Islam: traditional sciences and philosophy. M., 1988; Sufism in the context of Muslim culture. M-, 1989; Smirnov A.V. The Great Sheikh of Sufism (the experience of a paradigmatic analysis of the philosophy of Ibn Arabi). M., 1993; In search of hidden meaning. Sufi way of love. Spiritual teachings of Rumi. M., 1995; Nicholson R. A. The Idea of Personality in Sufism. Cambr., 1923; Idem. Studies in Islamic Mysticism. Cambr., 1967; ArberryA. 1. Sufism. An Account of the Mystics of Islam. L., 1956; Massignon L. Essay sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane. P., 1968; Idem. Thé Passion ofal-Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam, v. 3. The Teachings of Hallaj. Princeton (Ν.Υ), 1982; Iwtsu T. Sufism and Taoism: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts. Tokyo, 1983; Chittick W. C. The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn al-"Arabi"s Metaphysics of Imagination. Albany, 1989; Idem. The SelfDisclosure of God. Principles of Ibn al-"Arabi"s Cosmology Albany, 1998.
A. V. Smirnov
New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001 .
- Philosophy terminerdin sozdigi
- (from Arabic suf - coarse woolen fabric, hence hair shirt as an attribute of an ascetic), a mystical movement in Islam. It arose in the 8th-9th centuries, and finally took shape in the 10th-12th centuries. Sufism is characterized by a combination of metaphysics with ascetic practice, the doctrine of... ... Modern encyclopedia
- (from Arabic suf, coarse woolen fabric, hence hair shirt as an attribute of an ascetic), a mystical movement in Islam. It arose in the 8th-9th centuries, and finally took shape in the 10th-12th centuries. Sufism is characterized by a combination of metaphysics with ascetic practice, the doctrine of... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Arabic suf - coarse woolen fabric meaning “rags”) a mystical direction in the development of Islam; an Islamic version of a mystical form of religious experience. Distribution area from north West Africa to India and Northern China, including... ... Newest philosophical dictionary
- (from Arabic suf - coarse woolen fabric, hence hair shirt as an attribute of an ascetic), a mystical movement in Islam. Originated in the 8th and 9th centuries. S. is characterized by a combination of metaphysics with ascetic practice, the doctrine of gradual approach to the knowledge of God and... ... Russian history
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