Minerals on Mars table. How is NASA going to mine minerals on Mars? The difficulties of colonizing planets
Allow me, so to speak, to also write an article, since the Curiosity rover successfully landed on the moon. We will talk about business and minerals on Mars (not taking into account its two moons Phobos and Deimos). It’s probably no secret to anyone why Mars is the red planet? And the first thing that comes to mind, forgive me personally as an unprepared person, is hardware. And what does alloys have to do with alloys! So this is what they are actually looking for - a new “donor” for human resources, not only in the popular sense (everything is for the people), but also, of course, in the commercial sense, of course. Let’s remember the “Russian” price of gasoline and the price in Saudi Arabia for the domestic market ($3)! Is this also for the “good” of earthlings? Belief is big politics, if you want the global influence of the United States. But we're talking about Mars. I’m sure that before the Curiosity flight, many large companies made a deal with NASA! Of course, I don’t have the facts, but I have a reasonable guess. Build a mining station there: nickel, tungsten, gold, platinum... diamonds. After all, iron is nothing without carbon, but carbon is there and thanks to high pressures, the same bombings of asteroids, carbon turns into diamonds, especially with such a favorable atmosphere. Those. Roughly speaking, there are two parallel programs: greening Mars and mining. And this: cheaper semiconductors, computer chips, processors, etc. Among others, high-purity rubies, quartz, diamonds, fionites... And frozen water in the ground. There is an example - the paw of a module, pressed out when undocking from the surface, left a mark. A print glittered in the paw print, which then evaporated and became normal, no longer reflecting the print. 
Water, oxygen and nitrogen are also present in the atmosphere, although in very small quantities, which explains: photo of frozen droplets on the chassis drains. That is, it warmed up during landing, but landed and cooled down. The reverse effect of the refrigerator was formed. (When you put beer in the refrigerator) Of course, they will find, as the author wrote in the previous blog, mold and rust in the form of mold and simple bacteria, especially where there is discharge (evaporation) from the surface. Moreover, the moons of Mars, like our moon, also once “crashed” into it. Here is the usual classical scheme: on one moon - one thing, on the other - another, and on Mars, everything from minerals was transferred immediately upon impact. (On Earth, because of this, by the way, the Mariana Trench is where those who have not seen the light live and breathe toxins from volcanoes quite calmly). This is what natural wealth is. Of course, if I had the opportunity to work on Mars - with great joy (like on a business trip to BAM). You can’t walk without a spacesuit, during your lunch break, and some bollid (large meteorite) weighing about 50 kilograms will move you at 10x mach speed along the dome (if you look at the photo, there are a lot of them lying around from Koper’s belt) and, as a rule, they are also radioactive. Therefore, the Lunar phrase - they are there and we will not go there - meant exactly this. And who needs an extra dose of Curie from the pebbles lying around in the clearing of the crater? Go ahead. Have you not noticed the surge in the securities market today, the growth of the ruble, the rise of some (though not large) commodity and IT exchanges? But in vain! Little man - everything is for you, you just pay housing and communal services. This has a significant share of both the Olympic Games (with an indicator in the form of medals) and the success of investors who invested in Curiosity and future mining on Mars. There is no talk about delivery to Earth. Barack Obama promises a flight as early as 2030! This means that, in addition to the greening of Mars, there will be hundreds of plants and factories there to produce “finished goods” in the clean conditions of space assembly in a vacuum! And if you remember there was a project to create a constantly cruising (first one) then 2, 3 and 4 ships (assembled in orbit) along the Mars-Moon route 
, meanwhile reducing the delivery of products to Earth from 8 months to 4, 2? Do you understand me? The same iPhones and netbooks... but there are ready-made things lying under your feet, so to speak, that don’t require much drilling or digging wells. But what’s more, there’s no oil there. Oil comes from giant horsetails that died millions of years ago during the time of the dinosaurs. This means that if there were living creatures there, it was unlikely that they would be of the same scale as we have on Mother Earth. If everything was much simpler, then there is no oil there - but there are metals and diamonds. About the greening of Mars. Of course, if there is, and there is 100% water in the soil, then you can easily introduce some special bacteria that would fart with oxygen, while others would eat and write water in the soil. For example, as we know on Earth, in the depths of the ocean there are deep-sea animals that have not seen light or oxygen. Their cells are designed in such a way that the toxins that enter them provide them with protein synthesis and division of the cell itself, all under pressure of a thousand atmospheres under water. So a similar example can be given with Mars. Remember the movie Lunar - just about development, only on the Moon. But it will be very difficult and expensive for humanity to develop two planets at once. There is another theory of development - Mars has already been used. Let's assume that during the time of the dinosaurs there lived some aliens who pumped out all the resources from Mars before our Aportunity and Curiosity. We lived, ate, built, took a shit and flew to Alpha Cosseopeia in Zed-Setki (This is our tentura). This may explain the existing greenhouse effect. But there was no man then - there were monkeys from which he actually came. 
And then the land seemed wild to the comrades - a village. Well, you can’t run after a mammoth, excuse me, with your bare ass. I want to read an e-book on the subway and go to the sauna with friends. Not civil. So, according to this theory, please don’t throw tomatoes at me too much, we humans will try to use Mars a second time. So much for mastering it. And here, according to all the “well-known” theories (since Soviet times), there are methods of attracting young people to free slave labor. It’s cool to advertise how cool it is, to show on TV a team of green people supposedly vacationing in New Moscow on a picnic - but in fact, the standard is to collect 3 bags of complete garbage for free. Or excavating artifacts in the pyramids or the Urals... Like, here it is, a student team - living in a tent, sneakers, guitar, vodka... I don’t want to work. Or, returning to the Lenin years, create the image of Stakhanov, famous throughout the USSR! Like, there is such a thing. It goes to the mine on Mars and grinds 300% of the radioactive ore. So you become like him, and we’ll give you a plot of land, settle down with your family, a house, a river, a vegetable garden, a collective farm... we’ll give you the Volga or Victory. 
You will travel around on the Mars Rover to do PR. There are many methods to find free labor, but someone has to do it. But here’s the question: an expensive yacht is traveling along the Moscow Canal (that is, the Moscow River), and the canal itself was dug by prisoners not so long ago, and one might say it was built on bones... But it’s not a hint to the yachtsman. You see what I'm getting at about Mars. You will die, but no one even knew about you, you disappeared in the crater. Fell into a black hole. Who built it? Will our descendants respect the work of their grandmothers and grandfathers (I’m not taking the Great Patriotic War as an example - it’s clear here) but those on whose bones skyscrapers and factories will be built on Mars. factories, hazardous industries... 
I think it’s unlikely that a couple more generations will pass and no one, I think even now, will remember who Armstrong, Korolev, Gagarin was. People will point their finger at the iPad and say - this is the city on the Yandex map... that’s my conclusion for today. In the meantime, I’ll still say thank you to the scientists and the program! Everything will come to this anyway - just like on Earth. Time will only allow us to forget the creators.
At the 67th International Astronautics Congress in Guadalajara, Mexico, Elon Musk gave a speech that was more anticipated than any other speech from the billionaire and inventor. Musk talked about how humanity is on the threshold of its new future - free solar energy, self-driving cars and space travel await us. The first serious step on the path of the colonizers of the universe will be Mars, a planet that has been attracting people for hundreds of years. Musk's project for the colonization of Mars involves the construction of a self-sustaining station-city there - this will become possible in 50 - 100 years. Despite the boldness of such statements, projects for the colonization of Mars arose long before Musk - we have collected the most striking of them.
The idea of warming up the Red Planet a little by targeting nuclear strikes on nitrate deposits is an idea that even predates the nuclear bomb. The term “terraforming” was coined by science fiction writer Jack Williamson - in one of his stories he described in detail ways to make a lifeless planet suitable for colonization. It was then that the basic principles of this futuristic science were born, on which scientists, including Elon Musk, still rely. His proposal to bomb Mars with thermonuclear charges is nothing more than primary terraforming, which will cause a greenhouse effect and warm the planet to acceptable temperatures.
1950s: Wernher von Braun Project
The first detailed vision of American spaceflight to Mars was the brainchild of Wernher von Braun, a former Nazi scientist who worked for NASA after World War II. His 1952 book, The Mars Project, became the first widely circulated plan to build a colony on Mars. Von Braun envisioned a fleet of 10 massive spaceships assembled in space and positioned in orbit around Mars that would carry 70 people, along with food and everything they needed to survive.
1960s: Modular stations on the equator of Mars
Upon reaching Mars, a landing party of several spaceships becomes modular housing for the crew. At the same time, auxiliary premises with greenhouses and greenhouses are created on the surface of the planet, supplying the pioneers with food. For new arrivals, the authors of the project envisaged the deployment of inflatable dwellings in the form of tents, designed for 70 permanent people.
1980s: The Mars Underground and Mars Case
In the late 1970s, after successful manned flights to the Moon, many scientists became obsessed with the idea of sending the first colonizers to Mars. Mars Underground was the first sign of modern plans to populate the planet. It was within the framework of this project that serious research began into the capabilities of not only technology, but also people. The space exploration project included an interesting scheme for the shuttle transportation of the first settlers - the Moon was supposed to be used as a transshipment spaceport. Scientists do not abandon such plans to this day.
1990s: Robert Zubrin and Mars Direct
All the achievements of NASA scientists in the 1980s went to waste when the first administration of George H. W. Bush cut funding for the Mars program to almost zero. Guided by personal enthusiasm, scientist Robert Zubrin began developing a new program, which was several times cheaper and abandoned the idea of shuttle transportation. According to Zubrin's plan, the colonizers' ships went straight to Mars and began construction of residential blocks on the spot. A key feature of the project was the creation of small settlements of 10-20 people, who lived in their own residential modules with everything they needed - the houses had a gym and personal rooms for each settler.
2000s: Mars One
The private project Mars One involves a flight to Mars, followed by the establishment of a colony on its surface and broadcasting everything that happens on television. The largest reality show in the history of the planet is planned to launch in 2022, but due to insufficient funding, the project is still at the concept stage. In 2013, Mars One began selecting future astronauts who will learn the necessary skills and undergo long-term confined space tests in rocket and colony simulators. The astronaut team will necessarily include different genders and representatives of different nations. The aerospace company Lockheed Martin has expressed interest in providing the colonists with a spaceship, but the matter has not yet gone beyond the realm of fantasy.
The following are the goals of colonization of Mars:
- Creation of a permanent base for scientific research of Mars itself and its satellites, in the future - for the study of the asteroid belt and distant planets of the Solar System.
- Industrial extraction of valuable minerals.
- Solving the Earth's Demographic Problems.
- The main goal is to create the “Cradle of Humanity” in case of a global cataclysm on Earth.
The main limiting factor is, first of all, the extremely high cost of delivering colonists and cargo to Mars.
At the current moment and the near future, obviously, only the first goal is relevant. A number of enthusiasts of the idea of colonizing Mars believe that with large initial costs for organizing a colony in the future, provided that a high degree of autonomy is achieved and the production of some materials and essential items (primarily oxygen, water, food) from local resources is achieved, this is the way to go research will generally be more economically efficient than sending returning expeditions or creating settlement stations for work on a rotational basis. In addition, in the future, Mars may become a convenient testing ground for conducting large-scale scientific and technical experiments that are dangerous for the earth’s biosphere.
As for mining, on the one hand, Mars may turn out to be quite rich in mineral resources, and due to the lack of free oxygen in the atmosphere, there may be rich deposits of native metals on it; on the other hand, the current cost of delivering cargo and organizing mining in an aggressive environment (unsuitable for breathing rarefied atmosphere and a large amount of dust) is so great that no amount of wealth in the deposits will ensure the return on production.
To solve demographic problems, it will be necessary, firstly, to transfer the population from Earth on a scale incomparable with the capabilities of modern technology (at least millions of people), and secondly, to ensure complete autonomy of the colony and the possibility of a more or less comfortable life on the surface of the planet, for which will require the creation of a breathable atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and the solution of problems of protection from cosmic radiation. Now all this can be considered only speculatively, as a prospect for the distant future.
Ease of learning
Similarity to Earth
Differences
- The force of gravity on Mars is approximately 2.63 times less than on Earth (0.38 g). It is still unknown whether this is enough to avoid the health problems that arise from weightlessness.
- The surface temperature of Mars is much lower than that of Earth. The maximum level is +30 °C (at noon at the equator), the minimum is −123 °C (in winter at the poles). At the same time, the temperature of the surface layer of the atmosphere is always below zero.
- Due to the fact that Mars is farther from the Sun, the amount of solar energy reaching its surface is approximately half that of Earth.
- Mars' orbit has a greater eccentricity, which increases annual variations in temperature and solar energy.
- Atmospheric pressure on Mars is too low for humans to survive without a pressure suit. Living quarters on Mars will have to be equipped with airlocks, like those installed on spaceships, which could maintain Earth's atmospheric pressure.
- The Martian atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide (95%). Therefore, despite its low density, the partial pressure of CO 2 on the surface of Mars is 52 times greater than on Earth, which may allow it to support vegetation.
- Mars has two natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos. They are much smaller and closer to the planet than the Moon is to Earth. These satellites may prove useful [ ] when testing means of asteroid colonization.
- Mars' magnetic field is about 800 times weaker than Earth's. Together with the rarefied (100-160 times compared to the Earth) atmosphere, this significantly increases the amount of ionizing radiation reaching its surface. The magnetic field of Mars is not capable of protecting living organisms from cosmic radiation, and the atmosphere (subject to its artificial restoration) from dispersion by the solar wind.
- The discovery of perchlorates in the soil of Mars by the Phoenix spacecraft, which landed near the North Pole of Mars in 2008, casts doubt on the possibility of growing terrestrial plants in Martian soil without additional experiments or without artificial soil.
- The background radiation on Mars is 2.2 times higher than the background radiation on the International Space Station and is approaching the established safety limits for astronauts.
- Water, due to low pressure, boils on Mars already at a temperature of +10 °C. In other words, water from ice, almost bypassing the liquid phase, quickly turns into steam.
Fundamental achievability
The flight time from Earth to Mars (with current technologies) is 259 days in a semi-ellipse and 70 days in a parabola. In principle, delivery to Mars of the required minimum equipment and supplies for the initial period of the existence of a small colony does not go beyond the capabilities of modern space technology, taking into account promising developments, the implementation period of which is estimated at one to two decades. At the moment, protection from radiation during flight remains a fundamental unsolved problem; If this problem is solved, the flight itself (especially if it is carried out “one way”) is quite realistic, although it requires the investment of huge financial resources and the solution of a number of scientific and technical issues of various scales.
It should be noted that the “launch window” for flight between planets opens once every 26 months. Taking into account the flight time, even under the most ideal conditions (favorable location of the planets and the presence of a transport system in a state of readiness), it is clear that, unlike near-Earth stations or a lunar base, a Martian colony, in principle, will not be able to receive prompt assistance from Earth or evacuate to Land in the event of an emergency that cannot be dealt with on your own. Due to the above, simply to survive on Mars, a colony must have a guaranteed autonomy of at least three Earth years. Taking into account the possibility of a variety of emergency situations, equipment breakdowns, and natural disasters occurring during this period, it is clear that in order to ensure survival, the colony must have a significant reserve of equipment, production capacity in all branches of its own industry and, what is most important at first, energy generating capacity, since all production and the entire sphere of life support for the colony will be acutely dependent on the availability of electricity in sufficient quantities.
Living conditions
Without protective equipment, a person will not be able to live on the surface of Mars for even a few minutes. However, compared to the conditions on hot Mercury and Venus, the cold outer planets and the atmosphereless Moon and asteroids, the conditions on Mars are much more suitable for exploration. There are places on Earth, explored by man, in which the natural conditions are in many ways similar to those on Mars. The atmospheric pressure of the Earth at an altitude of 34,668 meters - the record high point reached by a balloon with a crew on board (May 4) - is approximately twice the maximum pressure on the surface of Mars.
The results of recent research show that on Mars there are significant and directly accessible deposits of water ice, the soil is, in principle, suitable for growing plants, and there is a fairly large amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. All this together allows us to count (if there is a sufficient amount of energy) on the possibility of producing plant food, as well as extracting water and oxygen from local resources, which significantly reduces the need for closed-loop life support technologies that would be necessary on the Moon, asteroids or in remote locations. from the Earth space station.
Main difficulties
The main dangers that await astronauts during their flight to Mars and stay on the planet are the following:
Possible physiological problems for the crew while on Mars will be the following:
Ways to terraform Mars
Main goals
Methods
- The controlled collapse of a comet, one large or many small icy asteroids from the Main Belt or one of Jupiter’s satellites onto the surface of Mars, in order to heat the atmosphere and replenish it with water and gases.
- Injection into orbit of a Mars satellite of a massive body, an asteroid from the Main Belt (for example, Ceres) in order to activate the planetary “dynamo” effect and strengthen Mars’ own magnetic field.
- Changing the magnetic field by laying a ring of a conductor or superconductor around the planet connected to a powerful energy source. NASA Science Director Jim Green believes that the natural magnetic field of Mars cannot be restored, at least not now or even in the very distant future. But it is possible to create an artificial field. True, not on Mars itself, but next to it. Speaking at the Planetary Science Vision 2050 Workshop on “The Future of the Mars Environment for Exploration and Science,” Green proposed creating a magnetic shield. This shield, Mars L1, according to the authors of the project, will close Mars from the solar wind, and the planet will begin to restore its atmosphere. It is planned to place the shield between Mars and the Sun, where it would be in a stable orbit. It is planned to create the field using a huge dipole or two equal and oppositely charged magnets.
- Explosion of several nuclear bombs on the polar caps. The disadvantage of the method is radioactive contamination of the released water.
- Placing artificial satellites in Mars orbit capable of collecting and focusing sunlight onto the surface of the planet to heat it up.
- Colonization of the surface by archaebacteria (see archaea) and other extremophiles, including genetically modified ones, to release the necessary quantities of greenhouse gases or obtain the necessary substances in large volumes from those already present on the planet. In April, the German Aviation and Space Center reported that in laboratory conditions simulating the atmosphere of Mars (Mars Simulation Laboratory), some types of lichens and cyanobacteria adapted after 34 days and showed the possibility of photosynthesis.
Methods of influence associated with the launch into orbit or fall of an asteroid require thorough calculations aimed at studying such effects on the planet, its orbit, rotation speed and much more.
A serious problem on the way to colonizing Mars is the lack of a magnetic field that protects from solar radiation. For a full-fledged life on Mars, a magnetic field is indispensable.
It should be noted that almost all of the above actions to terraform Mars at the moment are nothing more than “thought experiments”, since most of them do not rely on any existing in reality and at least minimally proven technologies, and in terms of approximate energy costs they many times exceed possibilities of modern humanity. For example, to create pressure sufficient to at least grow the most unpretentious plants in open ground, without sealing, it is necessary to increase the existing mass of the Martian atmosphere by 5-10 times, that is, deliver to Mars or evaporate from its surface a mass of the order of 10 17 - 10 18 kg. It is easy to calculate that, for example, to evaporate such an amount of water, approximately 2.25 10 12 TJ will be required, which is more than 4500 times higher than all modern annual energy consumption on Earth (see).
Radiation
Manned flight to Mars
Creating a spacecraft to fly to Mars is a difficult task. One of the main problems is protecting astronauts from solar radiation particle flows. Several ways to solve this problem are proposed, for example, the creation of special protective materials for the body or even the development of a magnetic shield similar in its mechanism of action to a planetary shield.
Mars One
"Mars One" is a private fundraising project led by Bas Lansdorp, involving a flight to Mars, followed by the establishment of a colony on its surface and the broadcast of everything that happens on television.
Inspiration Mars
The Inspiration Mars Foundation is an American non-profit organization (foundation), founded by Dennis Tito, planning to send a manned expedition to fly around Mars in January 2018.
Centennial spaceship
“Hundred-Year Starship” (eng. Hundred-Year Starship) is a project whose overall goal is to prepare for an expedition to one of the neighboring planetary systems within a century. One of the elements of preparation is the implementation of a project to permanently send people to Mars with the aim of colonizing the planet. The project has been developed since 2010 by the Ames Research Center, one of NASA's main scientific laboratories. The main idea of the project is to send people to Mars so that they establish a colony there and continue to live in this colony without returning to Earth. Failure to return will lead to a significant reduction in the cost of the flight, and it will be possible to take on more cargo and crew. Further flights will deliver new colonists and replenish their supplies. The possibility of a return flight will appear only when the colony, on its own, can organize on site the production of a sufficient number of items and materials necessary for this from local resources (primarily, we are talking about fuel and supplies of oxygen, water and food).
Connection with the Earth
To communicate with potential colonies, radio communication can be used, which has a delay of 3-4 minutes in each direction during the maximum approach of the planets (which repeats every 780 days) and about 20 minutes at the maximum separation of the planets; see Configuration (astronomy). The delay of signals from Mars to Earth and vice versa is due to the speed of light. However, the use of electromagnetic waves (including light) does not make it possible to maintain communication with the Earth directly (without a relay satellite) when the planets are in opposite points of their orbits relative to the Sun.
Possible locations for founding colonies
The best places for a colony gravitate towards the equator and lowlands. First of all this:
- Hellas depression - has a depth of 8 km, and at its bottom the pressure is the highest on the planet, due to which this area has the lowest background level from cosmic rays on Mars [ ] .
- Valles Marineris is not as deep as the Hellas Basin, but it has the highest minimum temperatures on the planet, which expands the choice of structural materials [ ] .
If terraformed, the first open body of water will appear in Valles Marineris.
Colony (Forecast)
Although the design of Martian colonies has not yet gone beyond sketches, due to the proximity to the equator and high atmospheric pressure, they are usually planned to be founded in different places in the Valles Marineris. No matter what heights space transport reaches in the future, the laws of conservation of mechanics determine the high cost of delivering cargo between Earth and Mars, and limit the periods of flights, tying them to planetary oppositions.
High delivery costs and 26-month interflight periods determine the requirements:
- Guaranteed three-year self-sufficiency of the colony (additional 10 months for flight and order processing). This is only possible if structures and materials are accumulated on the territory of the future colony before the initial arrival of people.
- Production of basic construction and consumable materials in the colony from local resources.
This means the need to create cement, brick, concrete products, air and water production, as well as the deployment of ferrous metallurgy, metalworking and greenhouses. Saving food will require vegetarianism [ ] . The likely absence of coking materials on Mars will require the direct reduction of iron oxides by electrolytic hydrogen - and, accordingly, the production of hydrogen. Martian dust storms can make solar energy unusable for months, which, in the absence of natural fuel and oxidizers, makes nuclear energy the only reliable option at the moment. Large-scale production of hydrogen and five times the content of deuterium in the ice of Mars compared to those on Earth will lead to the cheapness of heavy water, which, when mining uranium on Mars, will make heavy-water nuclear reactors the most efficient and cost-effective.
- High scientific or economic productivity of the colony. The similarity of Mars to Earth determines the greater value of Mars for geology, and, if there is life, for biology. The economic profitability of a colony is possible only when large rich deposits of gold, platinum group metals or precious stones are discovered.
- The first expedition must still explore convenient caves suitable for sealing and pumping air for the mass settlement of cities by builders. The habitation of Mars will begin from under its surface.
- Another likely effect from the creation of grotto colonies on Mars could be the consolidation of earthlings, the rise of global awareness on Earth; planetary synchronization.
- The physical image of a person reborn as a settler is a body “dried” from triple weight loss, a lighter skeleton and muscle mass. Changes in gait and movement patterns. There is also the danger of gaining excess weight. There is a possibility of changing your diet towards reducing food consumption.
- The colonists' diet may shift to lactic acid, products from cows from local hydroponic conveyor pastures set up in the mines.
Criticism
In addition to the main arguments criticizing the idea of human colonization of space (see Colonization of Space), there are also objections specific to Mars:
- Colonization of Mars is not an effective way to solve any problems facing humanity that can be considered as the goals of this colonization. Nothing so valuable has yet been discovered on Mars that would justify the risk to people and the costs of organizing production and transportation, and for colonization on Earth there are still vast uninhabited territories, the conditions on which are much more favorable than on Mars, and the development of which will cost much more. cheaper, including Siberia, vast expanses of equatorial deserts, and even the entire continent - Antarctica. As for the exploration of Mars itself, it is more economical to conduct it using robots.
- One of the main arguments against the colonization of Mars is its extremely small resource of key elements necessary for life (primarily hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon). However, in the light of recent studies that have discovered on Mars, in particular, huge reserves of water ice, at least for hydrogen and oxygen, the question is removed.
- Conditions on the surface of Mars require the development of innovative life support systems for life on it. But since conditions close enough to those on Mars do not occur on the earth’s surface, it is not possible to test them experimentally. This, in some respects, calls into question the practical value of most of them.
- Also, the long-term influence of Martian gravity on people has not been studied (all experiments were carried out either in an environment with Earth's gravity or in zero gravity). The degree of influence of gravity on human health when it changes from weightlessness to 1g has not been studied. In Earth orbit, it is planned to conduct an experiment (“Mars Gravity Biosatellite”) on mice to study the effect of Martian gravity (0.38 g) on the life cycle of mammals.
- The second cosmic speed of Mars - 5 km/s - is quite high, although it is half that of Earth, which, with the current level of space technology, makes it impossible to achieve a break-even level for the colony through the export of materials. However, the atmospheric density, shape (radius of the mountain is about 270 km) and height (21.2 km from the base) of Mount Olympus allow the use of various kinds of electromagnetic mass accelerators (electromagnetic catapult or maglev, or Gauss cannon, etc.) to launch cargo into the space. Atmospheric pressure at the top of Olympus is only 2% of the pressure characteristic of the average level of the Martian surface. Considering that the pressure on the surface of Mars is less than 0.01 atmospheres, the rarefaction of the environment at the top of Olympus is almost no different from the vacuum of space.
- The psychological factor is also of concern. The duration of the flight to Mars and the subsequent life of people in a confined space on it can become serious obstacles to the development of the planet.
- Some are concerned about the possible “pollution” of the planet by terrestrial life forms. The question of the existence (currently or in the past) of life on Mars has not yet been resolved.
- There is still no technology for producing technical silicon without the use of charcoal, as well as a technology for producing semiconductor silicon without technical silicon. This means it will be extremely difficult to produce solar cells on Mars. There is no other technology for producing technical silicon, since the technology using charcoal is the cheapest in terms of the cheapness of this material and energy costs. On Mars, one can use metallothermic reduction of silicon from its dioxide with magnesium to magnesium silicide, followed by decomposition of the silicide with hydrochloric or acetic acid to produce gaseous monosilane SiH4, which can be purified from impurities in various ways, and then decomposed into hydrogen and pure silicon.
- Recent studies on mice have shown that prolonged exposure to weightlessness (space) causes degenerative changes in the liver, as well as symptoms of diabetes. Humans experienced similar symptoms after returning from orbit, but the reasons for this phenomenon were unknown.
In art
- Soviet song “Apple trees will bloom on Mars” (music by V. Muradeli, lyrics by E. Dolmatovsky).
- Living on Mars is a popular science film produced by National Geographic in 2009.
- The song of the group Otto Dix - Utopia also has a mention (“... And apple trees will bloom on Mars, as on Earth...”)
- The song by Noize MC is “It’s Cool on Mars.”
- In the 1990 science fiction film Total Recall, the plot takes place on Mars.
- The song by David Bowie - “Life on Mars”, as well as Ziggy Stardust (eng. Ziggy Stardust listen)) is a fictional character created by David Bowie and a central figure in his glam rock concept album "The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders From Mars".
- Ray Bradbury - The Martian Chronicles.
- Isaac Asimov - Lucky Starr Series. Book 1 - "David Starr, Space Ranger."
- The film “Red Planet” tells about the beginning of the terroforming of Mars for the sake of saving earthlings.
- The OVA Armitage III takes place on colonized Mars.
- The tabletop role-playing games “Mars Colony” and “Mars: New Air” are dedicated to the process of colonization and (in the second case) terraforming of Mars.
- The terraforming and colonization of Mars forms the main backdrop to the events of Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars Trilogy.
- A series of books by Edgar Burroughs about the fantastic world of Mars.
- In the British television series Doctor Who in the episode The Waters of Mars, the first colony in the Gusev crater “Bowie Base One” was developed on the surface of Mars.
- Harry Harrison's science fiction story “Training Flight” tells the story of the first manned expedition to Mars. Particular attention is paid to the psychological state of a person living in a closed, uncomfortable environment.
- Writer Andy Weir's novel "The Martian" tells the story of a year and a half struggle for the life of an astronaut left alone on Mars. A film adaptation of this work was released in 2015.
- “John Carter” (eng. John Carter) is a fantastic action adventure film directed by Andrew Stanton, based on the book “A Princess of Mars” by Edgar Rice Burroughs.
- “The Martian” - film directed by
As mentioned, there are many interesting similarities between Earth and Mars that make the latter a viable option for colonization. For starters, Mars and Earth have similar day lengths. A Martian day (sol) lasts 24 hours and 39 minutes, which means that plants and animals, not to mention human colonists, will find this daily cycle quite to their liking.
Mars also has an axial tilt that is very similar to Earth's, meaning much of the same basic seasonal changes that we are accustomed to on Earth. Basically, when one hemisphere faces the Sun, it experiences summer, while the other experiences winter - only temperatures are higher and the days are longer.
This will come in handy when it comes to growing crops and providing the colonists with comfortable conditions and a way to measure the passage of the year. Like farmers on Earth, future Martians will experience a growing season and a harvest season, as well as the ability to hold annual celebrations to mark the changing of the seasons.
In addition, like on Earth, Mars is located within the potentially habitable zone of our Sun (the so-called Goldilocks zone), although it is shifted to its outer edge. Venus is also in this zone, but is located closer to the inner edge, which, combined with its thick atmosphere, made it the hottest planet in the solar system. The lack of acid rain also makes Mars a more attractive option.
In addition to this, Mars is closer to Earth than other planets in the solar system - except Venus, but we have already realized that it is not suitable for the first colonists. This will simplify the colonization process. In fact, every few years, when Earth and Mars are in opposition - that is, at a minimum distance - "launch windows" open up, ideal for sending colonists.
For example, on April 8, 2014, Earth and Mars were 92.4 million kilometers apart. On May 22, 2016, they will be at a distance of 75.3 million kilometers, and by July 27, 2018, they will converge at 57.6 million kilometers. Launching at the right time will reduce flight time from several years to months.
In addition, Mars has a fair amount of water in the form of ice. Much of it is located in the polar regions, but studies of Martian meteorites have shown that a lot of water may lie beneath the planet's surface. It can be extracted and purified for drinking purposes, and quite simply.
In his book The Case for Mars, Robert Zubrin also notes that future colonists could live off the soil by going to Mars, and would eventually colonize the planets completely. Instead of hauling all their supplies from Earth—like residents of the International Space Station—future colonists could make their own air, water, and even fuel by splitting Martian water into oxygen and hydrogen.
Preliminary experiments have shown that Martian soil could be baked into bricks to create defensive structures, which would reduce the amount of materials that need to be sent from Earth's surface. Plants on Earth can also grow in Martian soil if they receive enough light and carbon dioxide. Over time, planting plants in local soil can help create a breathable atmosphere.
Problems of colonization of Mars
Despite the above benefits, there are some pretty serious challenges to colonizing the Red Planet. For starters, there is the issue of average surface temperature, which is quite inhospitable. While temperatures around the equator can reach a balmy 20 degrees Celsius at midday, at Curiosity's landing site - Gale Crater, which is close to the equator - normal nighttime temperatures drop to -70 degrees.
Gravity on Mars is about 40% of Earth's, and it will be quite difficult to adapt to it. According to a NASA report, the effects of microgravity on the human body are quite profound, with monthly losses of muscle mass reaching up to 5% and bone density up to 1%.
On the surface of Mars, these losses will be lower because there is some gravity there. But permanent settlers will face problems of muscle degeneration and osteoporosis in the long term.
There is also the issue of an atmosphere that is unbreathable. About 95% of the planet's atmosphere is carbon dioxide, which means that in addition to producing breathable air for the colonists, they will also be unable to go outside without pressure suits and oxygen tanks.
Mars also does not have a global magnetic field comparable to Earth's geomagnetic field. Combined with a thin atmosphere, this means that significant amounts of ionizing radiation can reach the surface of Mars.
Thanks to measurements taken by the Mars Odyssey spacecraft (MARIE instrument), scientists have found that radiation levels in Mars orbit are 2.5 times higher than at the International Space Station. On the surface this level should be lower, but still remains too high for future settlers.
One of the latest papers presented by a team of MIT scientists analyzing Mars One's plan to colonize the planet, which will begin in 2020, estimates that the first astronaut will suffocate in just 68 days, while the rest will die of starvation, dehydration or burnout in the rich world. oxygen in the atmosphere. 
In short, the challenges to establishing a permanent settlement on Mars remain numerous but surmountable.
Terraforming Mars
Over time, many or all of the difficulties of life on Mars could be overcome through the use of geoengineering (terraforming). Using organisms like cyanobacteria and phytoplankton, colonists could gradually convert most of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere into breathable oxygen.
In addition, it is believed that a significant amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) is contained in the form of dry ice at the south pole of Mars, and is also absorbed by the regolith (soil). If the planet's temperature rises, this ice will sublimate into gas and increase atmospheric pressure. Although this will not make the atmosphere any friendlier to a person's lungs, it will solve the problem of the need for compressive suits.
A possible way to do this is to deliberately create a greenhouse effect on the planet. This can be done by importing ammonia ice from the atmospheres of other planets in our solar system. Since ammonia (NH3) is predominantly nitrogen by weight, it also supplies the buffer gas needed for a breathable atmosphere - like here on Earth.
In the same way, it would be possible to cause a greenhouse effect by importing hydrocarbons like methane - there is a lot of it in Titan's atmosphere and on its surface. Methane could be released into the atmosphere, where it would act as a component of the greenhouse effect.
Zubrin and Chris McKay, an astrobiologist at NASA's Ames Research Center, have also proposed creating factories on the planet's surface that would pump greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, thereby causing global warming (the same process we use to degrade our home Earth's atmosphere).
There are other possibilities, ranging from orbital mirrors that heat the surface to deliberate bombardment of the surface by comets. Regardless of the method, all existing options for terraforming Mars can only make the planet suitable for humans in the long term. 
Another proposal is to create underground dwellings. By building a series of tunnels connecting underground habitats, colonists could eliminate the need to carry oxygen tanks and pressure suits while away from home.
It would also provide some protection from radiation. Data obtained by the Mars Recknnaissance Orbiter shows that such underground dwellings already exist, which means they can be used.
Suggested missions
NASA is proposing a crewed mission to Mars - which would take place in the 2030s using the Orion Multi-Purpose Vehicle and SLS rocket - but it's not the only proposal to send humans to the Red Planet. In addition to other federal space agencies, there are plans for acquisitions from private corporations and non-profit organizations, some of which are quite ambitious and have more than just educational purposes.
He has long been planning to send people to Mars, but the construction of the necessary transport has not yet begun. The Russian Federal Space Agency Roscosmos is planning a manned mission to Mars, and in reserve there are tests of the Mars-500 model back in 2011, during which the flight conditions of a flight to Mars were simulated for 500 days. However, ESA also took part in this experiment.
In 2012, a group of Dutch entrepreneurs revealed plans for a crowdfunding campaign to build a Mars base, which would begin in 2023. The MarsOne plan calls for a series of one-way missions to establish a permanent and expanding colony on Mars, which will be funded through media fundraising.
Other details of the MarsOne plan include sending a telecommunications orbiter by 2018, a rover by 2020, and base components with colonists by 2023. The base will be equipped with 3,000 square meters of solar panels, and the equipment will be delivered using a SpaceX Falcon 9 Heavy rocket. The first team of four astronauts will land on Mars in 2025; after that, a new group will arrive every two years.
On December 2, 2014, NASA Director of Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Mission Operations Jason Crusan and Deputy Assistant Program Administrator James Reitner announced preliminary support for Boeing's Affordable Mars Mission Design initiative. Planned for the 2030s, the mission includes plans for radiation shielding, artificial gravity via a centrifuge, re-supply support and a re-entry vehicle. 
SpaceX and Tesla CEO Elon Musk also announced plans to create a colony on Mars with a population of 80,000 people. Integral to this plan is the development of the Mars Colonial Transporter (MCR), a spaceflight system that will rely on reusable rockets, launch vehicles and space capsules to transport people to Mars and return to Earth.
In 2014, SpaceX began development of the large Raptor rocket engine for the MCT, but the MCT will not begin operations until the mid-2020s. In January 2015, Musk said he hoped to unveil details of a "completely new architecture" for the Mars transportation system by the end of 2015.
The day will come when, after generations of terraforming and numerous waves of colonists, Mars will have a viable economy. Perhaps minerals will be mined on the Red Planet and could be sent to Earth for sale. Launching precious metals like platinum would be relatively inexpensive, thanks to the planet's low gravity.
However, Musk believes the most likely scenario (for the foreseeable future) involves the real estate economy. As the Earth's population grows, so will the desire to get away and invest in Mars real estate. And as soon as the transport system is established and worked out, investors will be happy to begin construction on new lands.
One day there will be real Martians on Mars - and it will be us.
→Today, Mars is the most attractive object for potential colonization. It’s worth starting with the fact that this is the closest planet to Earth (not counting Venus), the flight to which will take only 9 months. In addition, despite the fact that a person cannot be on the surface of Mars without protective equipment, the conditions of the planet are very similar to those on Earth.
First, the surface area of Mars is almost equal to the land area of Earth. Secondly, Martian days are similar to Earth ones and last 24 hours 39 minutes and 35 seconds. In addition, Mars and Earth have almost the same inclination of their axes to the ecliptic plane, as a result of which the seasons also change on Mars. The main factor in the possibility of potential colonization of the planet is the presence of an atmosphere on Mars, although not very dense, which guarantees some protection from radiation and also facilitates the landing of a spacecraft. Also, as a result of recent research, the presence of water on the planet has been confirmed, which gives scientists reason to assert the likelihood of the emergence and maintenance of life. Plus, it is worth noting the fact that the parameters of the Martian soil are very similar to the earth’s, so scientists are theoretically considering the possibility of growing plants on the surface of the planet.
However, it is worth noting factors that can greatly complicate the colonization of the red planet. Firstly, this is the force of gravity, which is more than two and a half times less than that of Earth. Secondly, it is a low temperature (the air warms up to a maximum of +30 degrees Celsius at the equator, while in winter at the poles the temperature can drop to -123 degrees). At the same time, the planet is characterized by large annual temperature fluctuations. The planet's magnetic field is approximately 800 times weaker than that of Earth. As for atmospheric pressure, on Mars it is too low for colonists to be on the surface without a special suit.
The atmosphere of Mars is 95 percent carbon dioxide, so the initial stages of terraforming the planet require vegetation to increase the oxygen content. By the way, the pressure of carbon dioxide may be sufficient to support the life of vegetation on the planet without additional terraforming.
However, for successful colonization of the planet, preliminary terraforming is indispensable. First, it is necessary to achieve atmospheric pressure on Mars at which the existence of liquid water would become possible. Secondly, it is necessary to create an ozone layer that would protect the surface from radiation. Plus, you need to increase the temperature at the equator to at least +10 degrees.
If terraforming is successful, the most favorable places for creating colonies will be lowlands in the equatorial zone. Among such places, scientists note primarily the Hellas Basin (the highest pressure on the planet), as well as the Valles Marineris (the highest minimum temperatures).
The plan for the colonization of Mars attracts humanity primarily because of the large reserves of various minerals on the planet: copper, iron, tungsten, rhenium, uranium and others. The extraction of these elements itself can be much more fruitful than on Earth, since, for example, due to the absence of a biosphere and a high background radiation, thermonuclear charges can be used on a large scale to open ore bodies.
Despite the fact that Mars is the most favorable planet for colonization in the solar system, many scientists declare the impossibility of implementing a plan for its colonization. One of the arguments is the small amount of elements necessary to support life (hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon). Also, many experts question the practical value of terraforming the planet (since it is not possible to test this experimentally under terrestrial conditions). In addition, many scientists are very frightened by Martian radiation, as well as Martian gravity, the harmful effects of which can lead to various mutations in the human body. Plus, scientists still find it difficult to answer the possible consequences of a long flight (it is quite possible that prolonged stay of people in a confined space can cause serious psychological problems).
