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Liberal reforms 60 70 summary

Conversions to Russian Empire The 60-70s of the century before last are called liberal reforms. The pivotal event of the long-term process was the Great Peasant Reform of 1861. It determined the course of further bourgeois reforms and reorganizations taken by the government of Alexander II. It was necessary to reorganize the political superstructure, rebuild the court, army and much more.

Thus, Alexander II’s understanding of the urgent need to carry out peasant reform led him, in the course of implementing the plan, to carry out a set of transformations in all spheres of public life in Russia. Without meaning to, the emperor took steps towards a bourgeois monarchy, which was based on the transition to an industrial society, a market economy and parliamentarism. The assassination of the Tsar in March 1881 turned the country's direction in a different direction.

Reform of zemstvo and city management

After the abolition of serfdom, the nobility became concerned about the strengthening of its role in political life countries. The government of reformers sensitively grasped the mood of the ruling class and developed zemstvo, and a little later, city reforms.

The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.

The main principles of zemstvo and city reforms were:

1. Separation of local self-government from administrative power.
2. Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
3. Independence in financial and economic matters.

Democratic judicial reform

Judicial, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the “Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia.” In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial statutes that defined new principles of legal proceedings:

The Emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.

Overdue army reform

The experience of the Crimean War showed that Russia needs a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the restructuring of the military command system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared back in 1861 and was implemented in 1874 in the following steps:

1. 15 military districts were created.
2. Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
3. New military regulations have been introduced.
4. Equipping the army with new types of weapons.
5. Abolition of the recruitment system.
6. Introduction of universal conscription for army recruitment.

As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.

Educational reform

Establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter high school solved problems:

• accessibility of education for all classes;
• monopoly of the state and church in the field of education, permission to zemstvos, public associations and individuals to open educational institutions;
• gender equality, opening higher courses for women;
• expanding the autonomy of universities.

The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.

Related reforms

In addition to significant reforms, the following were simultaneously carried out:

Financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted of transforming the banking system and strengthening the role of the Ministry of Finance.

Tax reform manifested itself in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.

The censorship reform abolished previews of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.

The reform of 1861 made the peasants free by allowing the most important problem Russian reality, but, at the same time, it has retained many traces old system, which could become an obstacle on the way economic development countries. The change in legal status is so large group population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the liberation of the peasants had to be complemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected bodies of self-government were created. Having relatively broad powers in the sphere of economic development, education, health care and culture, zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also sought to prevent coordination of the activities of zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very noticeable role in the development of the Russian province. No less decisive changes occurred thanks to judicial reform (1864). She, perhaps, most of all stood out from the traditional framework of the Russian political system. Universality, independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive proceedings, participation of jurors - all these principles decisively broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. Other steps taken by the state also developed in the direction of liberalization of public life: the easing of censorship rules (1865), the granting of autonomy to universities (1863) and even military reform (1874), as a result of which not only universal conscription and reduction of service life, but also attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century contributed huge changes into the life of the country. They allowed Russia to emerge from a protracted and deep crisis and significantly accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a rather long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its capabilities and increasingly had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. did not receive proper completion in the form constant movement towards complete democratization of society. Being a conservative response to the challenge of the time, a reaction from above, the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The government’s refusal to make these changes led to increased radicalism in social movement, which, in turn, created the conditions for a new escalation of the crisis. On top of the contradictions that were not resolved by the reforms of the 60s and 70s, new ones generated by the post-reform reality were superimposed and, thereby, increased conflict in Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.

Zemstvo reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they said then) economy. Honey. There was practically no help in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know basic hygiene rules. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. ABOUT country roads no one cared. Meanwhile state treasury was depleted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal community halfway, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established for the management of households. affairs: construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for organizing food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and collecting statistical information.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each county, for the election of members of the district zemstvo assembly, a three elect. congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatines. land (land qualifications were different in different counties). The second congress included city property owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant congress, brought together elected officials from the volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with Liber. landowners, the autocracy considered the local nobility its main support. Therefore, zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvos were not introduced in the Don Army Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos played a big positive role in improving the life of the Russian village and in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the districts were carried out by government officials together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus developed, a “third element” appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians began to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high examples of serving the people. The peasants trusted them, and the government listened to their advice. Government officials watched with alarm the growing influence of the “third element.”

Urban reform of 1870 In 1870, according to the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out7"0 and replaced the previous estate dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter Granted to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.

The right to elect to the city council was enjoyed by persons who had reached 25 years of age and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia was made up of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and trading enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, who contributed another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each curia elected an equal number of members to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the large financial, commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.

The city public self-government was in charge of household decisions. issues: improvement of the city, development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the City Duma was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. Nevertheless, for all its limitations, the urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government of the time of Ek II. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of a civil society and a rule-of-law state in Russia.

Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform, carried out on the basis of new judicial statutes adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the formal equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the trial; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; election of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general.

Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, and in the capitals by city dumas. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges - no lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 acres of land. At the same time, the judges received quite a high wages- from 2200 to 9000 rubles per year,

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers

The district court was appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. The consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen between the ages of 25 and 70 with impeccable personal characteristics, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A fairly significant property qualification was also established - ownership of real estate worth at least 2 thousand rubles. Lists of jurors approved. governor.

The court of appeal for the district court was the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict passed by the jury was not allowed.

The Trial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons with a rank higher than a titular councilor (i.e., from class VIII of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated to state affairs. crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the transparency of trials, which began to be held openly, the public was allowed to attend, and newspapers printed reports on trials that were of public interest. The adversarial principle of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society.

And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal remnants (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and high officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.

By the 1860s Russia has changed radically. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom- there were many free peasants and impoverished landowners in the country, the number of cities grew and new cities were built. All this required new reforms and changes. A kind of compensation from the government to the nobility was the implementation of the zemstvo reform of local government bodies, allowing representatives of all classes to participate in these bodies, but the main role belonged to the nobility. New local government bodies were also created in cities - City Dumas and Councils. All these bodies resolved issues of agriculture and urban economy, as well as actual problems settlements. Another great reform was the judicial reform of the Russian Empire, which brought the Russian judicial system to a qualitatively higher level. new level. You will learn about all this in more detail from this lesson.

As a result, AlexanderII carried out a reform of local government bodies - zemstvos. According to the government's idea, all layers of Russian society should have been involved in participation in local government bodies. However, in reality, the nobles played the main role, since they suffered the greatest losses during the peasant reform and the authorities wanted to partially compensate them for the losses. In addition, the government of Alexander II was confident that participation in economic life

regions will help distract the most radical forces of Russian society from activities destructive to the state. On January 1, 1864, by imperial decree, the Regulations on provincial and zemstvo institutions were introduced. Only men, who were elected through three curiae, had the right to take part in zemstvo bodies. The first curia is landowners - the richest people, the second - urban population , the third - free peasants who received the right of representation in zemstvo bodies. Money for zemstvo activities had to be collected using a special tax, which was introduced on everything real estate

in counties to factories, plots, houses (Fig. 2), etc. Rice. 2. Factory in Russia XIX

V. () Administrative bodies were zemstvo assemblies that met once a year. They were attended by deputies - vowels chosen from three curiae. Administrative bodies met for a short period of time to solve the most important economic problems of the region. The rest of the time, the executive bodies of zemstvos - zemstvo councils - acted. They were much smaller in number of deputies, but zemstvo councils were permanent local government bodies that resolved the daily issues of the population.

Zemstvos dealt with a fairly wide range of issues. They built schools and hospitals (Fig. 3), provided them with supplies, created new routes of communication, and resolved issues of local trade (Fig. 4). The sphere of administration of zemstvos also included charity, insurance, veterinary affairs and much more. In general, it is worth saying that the zemstvos did a lot. Even opponents of the reforms of Alexander II admitted that the old bureaucratic apparatus of local self-government would not have been able to resolve as many issues as the new zemstvo bodies did.

Rice. 3. Rural school XIX Russia XIX

Rice. 4. Rural trade in the 19th century. ()

In 1870, a city reform of local government bodies was carried out on the model of the zemstvo. According to it, the old city authorities were replaced by new all-estate councils and councils. Now residents of all social strata could be involved in the management of the city. This made the authorities fear the new city governments and tightly control them. Thus, the city mayor could be appointed only with the consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs or the governor. In addition, these two officials could veto any decision of the City Duma (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. City Duma of the 19th century. ()

Men at least 25 years of age could participate in city government bodies and must pay taxes to the treasury. The city councils resolved a number of issues related to the development of the city: business and trade activities, improvement, maintenance of the police and prisons.

Urban reform has become an important stage in the development of Russian cities as a whole.

In the conditions of post-reform Russia, a huge number of free people appeared, but they were disoriented and did not understand how to live in the country. Before Alexander's government IIgot up serious problem ships. The old courts of the Russian Empire were fairly corrupt; power in them belonged to representatives of the nobility or local administration. All this could lead to deep social upheaval.

In connection with the above circumstances, one of the most systematic and consistent reforms of Alexander IIwas judicial reform. According to the plan of this reform, two types of courts were created: general and magistrates.

Magistrates' courts operated in cities and counties. They tried minor civil and criminal cases. Justices of the peace (Fig. 6) were elected by officials of the City or Zemstvo government. They were the sole arbiters of justice in their area and tried their best to solve problems between the residents of their area. settlement amicably.

Rice. 6. Justice of the Peace ()

The general courts were divided into district courts and judicial chambers. They were located in provincial cities and resolved a large number of issues. The district courts heard civil, criminal and political cases. Important distinctive feature district courts had the presence of jurors. These were people who were chosen by lot from among ordinary townspeople. They rendered a verdict: whether the accused was guilty or not. The judge only determined the measure of restraint in case of his guilt or released the innocent person to freedom.

If dissatisfied with the verdict, the convicted person could file an appeal to the Trial Chamber. The supreme authority of the Russian judicial system became the Senate, where an appeal could be filed if there was a complaint about the actions of the Judicial Chamber.

The Senate also exercised general management of the judicial system of the Russian Empire. Among other things, other changes have occurred in the judicial system. For example, such positions as a prosecutor, who headed the prosecution, and a lawyer, who defended the interests of the defendant, appeared. Conducted

court hearings

henceforth, in an atmosphere of openness: representatives of the press and inquisitive citizens were allowed into the courtroom.

All of the above has made the Russian judicial system more flexible.

1. In general, we can say that the Russian judicial system after the reform of Alexander II became the most effective and most advanced in the world. City and zemstvo reforms of self-government bodies also allowed the country's public administration to reach a new, qualitative level.
2. Bibliography
3. Zayonchkovsky P.A. Abolition of serfdom in Russia. - M., 1964.
4. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
5. Lonskaya S.V. World justice in Russia. - Kaliningrad, 2000.
6. After the reforms: government reaction // Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century: a course of lectures. - M.: Higher School, 1997.

1. Russian Military Historical Society ().
2. History.ru ().
3. Grandars.ru ().
4. Studopedia.ru ().

Homework

1. Describe the zemstvo reform of local governments. How did it go? What was the impact of this reform?
2. How did the urban reform of local governments proceed? What did this reform lead to?
3. How did the judicial system of the Russian Empire change after the judicial reform 1864?

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The abolition of serfdom in Russia also entailed transformations in other areas of the country's life.

Zemstvo reform of 1864: 1) changed the entire system of local government; 2) zemstvos were created in provinces and districts, which were elected bodies of local self-government and consisted of representatives of all classes; 3) a high property qualification and a multi-stage election system ensured the predominance of nobles in zemstvos; 4) zemstvos did not have political functions, the scope of their activity was limited only to economic issues; 5) zemstvos played a positive role in local public life.

Urban reform of 1870: 1) was carried out according to the zemstvo type. City councils and city councils were created in cities; 2) city local governments were also primarily in charge of economic issues; 3) the elected city mayor headed the city duma and government and coordinated their activities.

Judicial reform of 1864

1. This reform was the most radical of the transformations of 1860–1870.

2. According to the judicial reform, Russia received an updated court, which was based on the principles of bourgeois law, namely, the new court became: classless; vowel; adversarial; independent.

3. The reform introduced the election of some judicial bodies.

4.According to new system The prosecutor and the lawyer participated in the trials.

5. The question of the guilt or innocence of the accused was decided by the jury.

6. The competence of various judicial authorities was delimited. The highest court was the Senate.

Military reform: 1) the need to carry out military reform became obvious in connection with the defeat in Crimean War; 2) it was carried out before 1874 G.

As a result of military reform, recruitment was abolished; universal military service was introduced, which had to be served by all men, without distinction of class, who had reached the age of 20 and were fit for service due to their health; the length of service in the army was significantly reduced: in the infantry instead of 25 years - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years; A system of various benefits to reduce service life began to operate for people receiving education, helping parents, etc.

Reforms in the education system: 1) significant changes have occurred in the field of education; 2) in 1864 The Charter of Gymnasiums and the Regulations on Public Schools were published, which regulated primary and secondary education; 3) in 1863 The autonomy of universities, liquidated under Nicholas I, was restored.

IN 1865 The Temporary Rules on the Press were introduced, which abolished censorship for many printed publications.

Financial reform predetermined the formation of a unified state budget, the planning of which was entrusted to the Ministry of Finance.

The significance of bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century

The reforms carried out significantly changed the previous structure of public life and the state. Thus, steps were taken towards transforming Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. Political reforms could be a continuation of the transformations (project of constitutional changes developed by M.T. Loris-Melikov).

But murder in 1881 Alexander II radically changed the direction of the government's course.