The development of the school education system in Russia in the 19th century. School and Pedagogical Thought in Russia at the Beginning of the 19th Century
After the all-Russian reform of 1804, a new system of male education was taking shape in the province. In 1805, a gymnasium was opened in the House of Charity of the Neighbor. Its first director was A.N. Khomutov. The multi-subject program of the gymnasium was not permanent. In the first half of the 19th century, the teaching of ancient languages, Greek (1834-1852) and, above all, Latin, became the basis of gymnasium education. Mathematics, French, and other new languages also played an important role. In the late 1840s, an attempt was made to increase the amount of science in the curriculum, but this was quickly abandoned. Since 1817, paid education has been introduced in the gymnasium.
IN early XIX century, on the basis of public schools, county schools appeared in the cities of Yaroslavl, Rostov, Rybinsk, Mologa, Uglich, and then in other cities. This is middle school. The lowest level was the parish schools, where reading, writing, counting and religious education were given. Parish schools were created on the personal initiative of the clergy.
In 1805, a higher science school (Demidov Lyceum) was opened in Yaroslavl.
At the beginning of the century, the lack of a serious need for education in society held back the development of the school. In 1828, its reform was carried out, the three-stage model ceased to be the norm. Education had a class connotation (gymnasium - mainly, although not exclusively, for the nobility, county schools - for the children of merchants and wealthy artisans).
Women's education developed. In 1816, Louis Duvernoy, a drawing teacher at the Yaroslavl gymnasium, opened an institute for noble maidens here. In 1820, A. Matien opened a private women's boarding house. Private pensions were then opened in Yaroslavl and other cities. All of them were intended for young noblewomen.
In 1828, the first public school, probably in the village, was opened in Porechye near Rostov. In 1834, an exemplary parish school was opened in the village of Staroandreevsky (now Shagot). Prince M.D. Volkonsky opened a school for peasants in 1835 in the village of Maryino (on the Ildi River). Literacy was taught everywhere by fellow villagers. In the middle of the century, I. Aksakov recorded: “In the Yaroslavl province, the most literate. Not to mention the townspeople: among the townspeople, the illiterate is a rare exception. In the 1840s, from 12 to 47 percent of boys studied in schools in the province (an average of 28.7 percent).
In 1860-1861, 21 Sunday schools were opened by enthusiasts (including women's in Uglich). In 1862 they were closed due to a critical bias.
The gymnasium in Rybinsk was added to the men's gymnasium in Yaroslavl (opened in 1875, became full in 1884). Their program is dominated by ancient languages. Only at the beginning of the 20th century did Latin and Greek language was shortened in favor of the Russian language and geography.
Until the early 1860s, there were 4 women's schools in the province (in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Rybinsk, Romanov-Borisoglebsk). In 1861, the Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium of the “lightweight type” appeared in Yaroslavl, which was located in the House of Charity of the Neighbor. Her first boss was F.F. Schultz. It was intended "for girls of all classes." In 1876, instead of the moved Mariinsky Gymnasium, the Ekaterininsky Women's Gymnasium was opened in the House of Charity of the Neighbor. By the end of the century, there were 3 women's gymnasiums in the province (2 in Yaroslavl, 1 in Rybinsk), and 3 pro-gymnasiums (Rostov, Uglich, Poshekhonye).
In 1880-1886 in Yaroslavl there was a private real school P.Ya.Morozov with a bias towards the natural sciences. The state real school will be opened in the city in 1907.
Vocational education is developing. By the end of the century, there was a teacher's seminary in the village of Novy Mologsky district, a technical school named after. Komarov in Rybinsk, Sobolev vocational school in Yaroslavl, paramedic school in Yaroslavl (since 1873). In 1859, a school of military clerks appeared in Yaroslavl, on the basis of which a military progymnasium was established (1868/1869 academic year). Subsequently, it was transformed into a military school and on its basis in 1895 a cadet corps was created, located across the Kotorosl River, where since the 30s of the 19th century there were battalions of cantonists.
At the turn of the century, vocational schools arose: the technical school. N.P. Pastukhova; trade school, which will then be transformed into a commercial school named after Yaroslav the Wise; evening drawing classes in Yaroslavl, a river school in Rybinsk, an agricultural school - first in the village. Vakhtino in the Danilovsky district, and later in the Uglich district, a commercial school in the village of Veliky, a technical school in the village of Sereda, etc.
In the system of spiritual education, in addition to the seminary, there are 4 county theological schools - in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Uglich and Poshekhonye (originally in the Adrian Monastery). There was also a religious school in Pereslavl-Zalessky.
In Yaroslavl, in 1848, a school for clergy girls was opened. At first it was three-class, and since 1903 it became six-class. In 1880, the six-year Jonathan Diocesan Women's School appeared. It also prepared teachers for parochial and zemstvo schools.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the need for education developed. The education system includes the lowest level (literacy schools, one-class schools); two-class schools; district schools (there are 6 of them in the province: in Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Rostov, Romanov-Borisoglebsk, Uglich, Mologa). In this arena, the state, the Zemstvo and the church interact.
Zemstvo actively went to meet the people's need for education, but its activity was restrained by material resources.
In the 1860s, on the initiative of some priests (and sometimes at their expense), parochial schools arose - for example, in the villages of Voskresensky, Maslovo, Kuzyaev, Myshkinsky district. Archbishop Nil (Isakovich) worked hard on the development of education. In 1884, a system of parochial schools financed by the spiritual department was established.
The most common form of folk school was a one-class (three-year) school. Here the Law of God, the Church Slavonic and Russian languages, arithmetic, calligraphy, sometimes handicrafts and needlework were studied, and church singing was also studied in parochial schools. In 1896, the first two-year (six-year) parochial schools (teachers') appeared.
Three recent decades XIX century, the number of educational institutions in the province increased almost five times, and the number of students more than five times. By the end of the century, there were 1,036 lower-type schools, with about 56,000 students. At the end of the 19th century, the province was one of the first in the country in terms of the development of primary education, the number of schools, and the literacy of the population, competing with the Baltic states, Moscow and St. Petersburg provinces. And in terms of the percentage of literate people, the province was the first among the zemstvo provinces. In some counties, almost universal literacy of boys was ensured (especially in Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Mologa and Myshkinsky). The highest level of literacy was in the Kopri volost of the Rybinsk district. Among the recruits were 86, and in some places 100 percent literate. In the families of otkhodniks, literacy reached 90 percent.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the average literacy rate among the male population reached 61.8%, among women - 27.3% (according to the 1897 census, the similar figures for Russia as a whole were 27% and 13%, respectively).
Yermolin E.A.
The very beginning of the 19th century was characterized by liberal undertakings in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created - a special government agency, which has become not so much a body contributing to the development of public education, "how much a supervisory body." Under the ministry, the Main Directorate of Schools was created, which included Yankovich F.I.
In 1804, the “Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” were published. In accordance with them, a new system of public education and management of educational institutions was introduced.
The system was based on three principles:
free,
Bessoslovnost (except for serfs),
Continuity of educational institutions.
The system of public education, subordinate to the ministry, included:
1) Parish schools - 1 year of study;
2) County schools - 2 years:
3) Gymnasiums in the provinces - 4 years;
4) Universities - 5-7 years.
At the same time, children of serfs and girls were not allowed to enter the gymnasium and universities.
Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were led by school district trustees.
The duties of the trustee are the opening of the university or the transformation on new foundations of the existing management of the educational institutions of the district through the rector of the university.
The rector of the university was elected by the professors at the general meeting and reported to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.
Directors of gymnasiums (in each provincial city), in addition to their direct management, managed all the schools in a given province. They were subordinate to the superintendent of district schools, who led all the parish schools.
Thus, the head of the higher level school was the administrator of the lower level schools. As a result, an educational administration was created from specialists who knew the matter.
The following universities were opened in Russia: Moscow, Vilna (Vilnius), Derpt (Tartu), in 1804 Kharkov and Kazan were opened, in 1816 - the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. University), in 1834 - Kiev University. All universities in Russia existed mainly as secular educational institutions. The Orthodox Church had its own theological academies: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Kazan.
The gymnasium provided a completed secondary education and prepared for admission to the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign new and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and history of general and Russian, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. At the same time, they did not teach their native language, domestic literature and the Law of God in the gymnasium.
District schools prepared students for continuing education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. There were many subjects in the curriculum - from the Law of God to drawing (Sacred history, reading a book about the positions of a person and a citizen, geography, history, etc.). The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload of teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. Teachers were required to use only textbooks recommended by the ministry.
Parish schools could be opened in provincial, county towns and in the village at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for education in the district school and to give children general education knowledge (boys and girls could study together). Subjects of study: the Law of God and moral teachings, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic.
Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. In the "classic" students were prepared for admission to universities and other educational institutions, most of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, Russian literature, new foreign languages and history. In the "real" ones, they prepared for military and civil service, instead of ancient languages, the teaching of practical mathematics was strengthened, jurisprudence was introduced.
The network of private educational institutions also expanded, but the government deliberately restrained their growth. In 1883, it was forbidden to open them in Moscow and St. Petersburg, although later they were allowed again. Private schools were also under strict government control.
Start of the second half of XIX century in Russia was characterized by a great reform movement that stirred up society. Following the reform of 1861 on the liberation of peasants from serfdom, other reforms were outlined: judicial, zemstvo, educational, educational. By this time, the issues of upbringing and education began to be understood as "the most important issues of life."
During these years, many outstanding people turned to pedagogical theory and activity: Pirogov N.I. (famous surgeon, public figure, teacher), Ushinsky K.D., Tolstoy L.N. and others. For them, this was the time of the most intensive innovative work. Many interesting figures joined the problems of pedagogy and pedagogical work in various provinces of Russia. WITH light hand N.I. Pirogov, a lively discussion began in the press of the problem of human education and other pedagogical issues: “What should a school be like? What should be its program? Class or non-class school? What to teach at school? How to prepare a teacher?”, and many others.
The main attention of society at that time was drawn to the public school, which, one might say, did not exist in the empire. The parish schools were obliged to support the peasants and landowners themselves, so they developed very poorly. The villagers were still taught to read and write by deacons, pilgrims and similar people.
Public schools were subordinated to different departments:
the Ministry of State Property;
the Ministry of the Court;
the Ministry of the Interior;
Holy Synod (more than half of all schools);
Ministry of Public Education (it accounted for about 20% of schools).
The abolition of serfdom necessitated the opening of schools for all segments of the population: peasants and landowners, urban residents. The injustice of the estate policy in the field of education, restrictions in the field of women's education. The insufficiency of secondary education based on classicism was revealed. The need for the development of domestic pedagogical science began to be acutely realized, a need arose for pedagogical periodicals, new educational books, and the development of new teaching methods. Teacher training for different type schools, the creation of schools themselves - all these were pressing problems of the middle of the 19th century.
In 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" was developed. According to him, public schools could be opened by various government departments, societies, individuals, who themselves decided whether they were paid or free. The purpose of public schools is "to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge." Teaching subjects: the Law of God, reading (civil and church books), writing, four steps of arithmetic, church singing. Public schools were run by county and provincial school councils.
In 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" was introduced. Two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real. The purpose of the "classical" ones is to provide a general education necessary for admission to the university and other higher specialized educational institutions. "Real gymnasiums" did not give the right to enter universities. There were also "pro-gymnasiums" - the initial stage of the gymnasium. Pedagogical councils received great rights: they could approve teaching programs and choose textbooks.
In 1860, the "Regulations on Women's Schools of the Department of the Ministry of Public Education" was published. Two types of classless women's schools were established:
I category - 6 years of study;
II category - 3 years of study.
Their goal is "to inform the students of the religious, moral and mental education that should be required of every woman, especially from the future wife and mother of the family." Individuals and societies could open them. The curriculum of women's schools of the first category included: the Law of God, the Russian language, grammar and literature, arithmetic and the concepts of measurements, general and Russian geography, history, the beginnings of natural knowledge and physics, calligraphy and needlework.
In 1863, the "University Charter" was introduced, providing some autonomy to the universities - the University Council was created, which supervised all educational work, and on which the rector was chosen. Severe restrictions on the activities of universities, established under Nicholas I, were partially removed, but the university remained subordinate to the trustee of the educational district and the Ministry of Public Education. Women were not allowed in the university. The universities had 4 faculties: historical and philological, physical and mathematical (with a natural department), law and medicine. Many new departments have been opened.
"Zemstvos", created in the 60s, received the right to open educational institutions; they had to deal with them material support. Zemstvos developed plans for universal education, opened schools, held courses and congresses for teachers, developed new programs and textbooks, created teachers' seminaries (before 1917, about 1/3 of primary rural schools were zemstvo). Manners of a cultured person on the site pages.
"Letidor" tells how they lived, what subjects they studied, what kind of uniform they wore and how much money they gave for the education of the students of the Arseniev gymnasium at the end of the 19th century in Moscow.
About the gymnasium
In the late 1860s, several private educational institutions were opened in Moscow at once. One of the most notable was the women's gymnasium, which was led by Sofya Arsenyeva, the daughter of the famous Russian architect Alexander Vitberg.
The gymnasium was located in the very center of Moscow, in the former mansion of Denis Davydov (at the present address - Prechistenka Street, 17).
About the program
Girls were admitted to the gymnasium at the age of 8-9 years. A prerequisite for those entering the preparatory class by the beginning of the academic year, there were requirements:
- according to the "Law of God": the Lord's Prayer, prayer before teaching and after teaching;
- in the "Russian language": the ability to read without great difficulty and write off from books on two rulers;
- in the "French language": knowledge of the entire alphabet - printed and written, as well as the ability to write it;
- on "Arithmetic": the ability to write numbers.
Those who wanted to join a class in the middle of the school year were required to know the material already learned in that class that day. The girls who attended classes belonged to the nobility. A whole team of teachers prepared them for entering the school.
What did the graduate of the gymnasium know after graduation
After seven years of education, each student knew:
- "Law of God": prayers. Sacred History of the Old and New Testaments. History of the Christian Church. Catechism. The doctrine of worship of the Christian Orthodox Church. Reading Scripture;
- "Russian language and literature": reading and storytelling. Expressive pronunciation by heart. spelling exercises. Grammar: Russian and Church Slavonic etymology, Russian syntax. Stylistics. Exercises in presentations and essays in connection with elementary logic. Graceful translations from foreign languages. The study of Russian prose writers and poets. History of Russian literature;
- “French, German, English” (those pupils for whom the study of three foreign languages was found difficult were exempted from teaching English): reading, storytelling, expressive pronunciation by heart, spelling exercises, grammar and stylistics, the study of prose writers and poets, the history of literature; ability to speak and write languages;
- "Mathematics": arithmetic, algebra up to and including logarithms, geometry with stereometry; application of algebra to geometry; trigonometry;
- "History", "Geography", "Physics": in the volume of the course of the male gymnasium;
- "Natural Sciences": in the lower 4th grade - as a subject of visual education, in the 7th grade - in more detail;
- "From the Arts": drawing, choral singing, gymnastics, dancing, music; and in the first 3 classes and calligraphy.
How much did education cost
Tuition prices in 1878 were as follows: fee for an incoming student (per year) - 150 rubles; for a half boarder - 400 rubles, for a boarder - 500 rubles. For a student of the preparatory class: incoming - 100 rubles; half board - 350 rubles; boarding house - 450 rubles. In addition, 30 rubles were paid at a time for each boarder.
For comparison: in those years, a kilogram of potatoes cost 2 rubles, a kilogram of beef - 27 rubles, a kilogram of butter - 61 rubles.
What did high school girls wear?
The gymnasium had strict rules regarding the appearance of girls. The proper attire was a brown woolen dress and a black woolen apron.
In those days, neglect of appearance was punished more severely than ignorance of the subject. A student who came to class in a disheveled form received a reprimand, an introduction to her parents. Also, the girl was scolded by a cool lady or more - the director of the gymnasium Sofya Arsenyeva himself, whose condemning look, according to the recollections of schoolgirls, was the worst punishment for each of them.
About the life of students
Thanks to the surviving memoirs of graduates of the gymnasium, not only the formal structure of the school is known, but also the features of its life. Classes began promptly at 9. One of the students, Tatyana Aksakova-Sivers, recalls:
"In the low spacious front estates I was met by the porter Alexander, a little fat old man, stomping around like a bear cub, and his wife, a efficient, fast old woman Natalya, who for more than 30 years had been in charge of hangers, and boiled water, and making bells.
My class consisted of about 40 people, studied well, but was somehow motley. Less shiny than the previous one...
Teaching was given to me without any difficulty and was never the subject of concern for my parents. From the 2nd grade to the very end, I went with round fives, but I must admit that the fives in physics and mathematics were only due to a good memory, while the humanities penetrated a little deeper.
In the 4th grade, we took exams in natural science, and the mark obtained on this exam was included in the final certificate. Since I was already aiming for a gold medal, a B in natural history could spoil the whole thing for me, and I, devoured by ambition, repeated by heart “buttercups” and “cruciferous” that could let me down.
Our teacher in this subject was Anna Nikolaevna Sheremetevskaya, the sister of the famous actress Maria Nikolaevna Yermolova, a very nervous woman, from whom one could expect all sorts of surprises. However, everything worked out well, and the mark I received did not block my path to “glory”.
The need for education was obvious...
At the beginning of the 19th century, changes became clear in Russia, generated by the development of bourgeois relations in all areas of the economy, as well as growing international trade relations. The development of industry, the introduction of new technical and agronomic methods in agriculture, the growing cities that required the development of transport, means of communication - all this increased the need not only for specialists, but simply for literate people who could meet the requirements of the time.
But at the same time, according to the data of 1797, the percentage of the literate population was very low: 9.2% in the city and only 2.7% in the village. And this figure becomes even more depressing when you consider that only 4% of the country's inhabitants were urban. At the same time, it should be remembered that at the beginning of the 19th century, those who could draw their signature (instead of marking with a cross) were considered literate. This is a very low criterion for literacy.
It is clear that the idea of enlightenment in this period must have been very acute.
The young monarch Alexander I, who ascended the throne at the beginning of the 19th century, turned to new social forces that would help him strengthen his position - to liberal reformism, because. this would win over the majority of the enlightened nobles to his side.
The "young friends" of Emperor Alexander I were involved in the preparation of a number of reforms: Count P.A. Stroganov, Prince A. Chartorizhsky, Count V.P. Kochubey and others. In 1801, they formed an Unspoken Committee, which was supposed to develop reforms in the most important aspects of life, including the issue of education.
In this regard, in 1802 the Ministry of Public Education was created. His task is to completely reorganize the entire educational process. In 1804, the results of the work of the Ministry were published: "The Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire" and "The Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities".
According to these statutes, a system of administration of educational institutions was created. Public education was divided into 4 stages:
- parochial schools;
- county schools;
- gymnasium;
- Universities.
All these stages of learning were interconnected. In addition, the entire territory of Russia was divided into 6 educational districts according to the number of universities that existed and were supposed to be opened: Moscow, Derpt, Vilensky, Petersburg, Kazan and Kharkov. At the head of each educational district was a trustee, who in his person exercised control of the Ministry of Education over all educational institutions of this district. The rector of the university was directly subordinate to the trustee.
The rector and professors of the university supervised the gymnasiums that were part of the district, controlled the work of the director and teachers.
Accordingly, the director of the gymnasium supervised the work of the county schools of his district, and the superintendent of the county schools supervised the activities of the parish schools. This system operated not only in the field of control, but also contained the continuity of curricula at all levels.
Tasks of the learning levels
Parish schools
The term of study is 1 year. They provided training for children of the lower strata, which included religious education, reading, writing, counting skills and preparation for entering the county school.
County schools (in county and provincial cities)
The term of study is 2 years. Intended for children of small merchants, artisans, wealthy peasants. The curriculum provided preparation for entering the gymnasium.
Gymnasiums (in provincial towns)
The term of study is 4 years. The purpose of the training is to prepare noble children for the civil service or for entering the university.
Universities
The term of study is 3 years.
According to the Charter, the development of curricula, the choice of the rector, deans and professors were made by the Academic Council.
The educational reform of 1804 was progressive and free of charge.
But it's on the surface. If you dig deeper, then everything that is planned to be done according to the principle “we wanted the best” is obtained according to the principle “as always”.
In fact, the government removed itself from the maintenance of parish schools, and they passed to the goodwill of local authorities. When enrolling in a gymnasium, the rule of a classless education did not work: it was required to provide "free" from the landowners. Noble boarding houses (designed only for noble children) began to form at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities or, to some extent, in the likeness of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum.
In the future (after the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising), Alexander I intensified the reactionary course, which also affected education.
In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education, headed by the former Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, Prince A.P. Golitsyn. His work began with a revision of the educational process, a revision of curricula, the teaching of natural science was prohibited in parish schools, philosophy, political economy, the theory of commerce and technology were excluded from the course of the gymnasium. Some universities were recognized as hotbeds of revolutionary contagion. It began to be eradicated first at Kazan, and then at other universities. And the events of December 14, 1825 completely caused the adoption of emergency measures: the creation of the III department and the corps of gendarmes, measures to strengthen the autocratic power and the nobility as its support. In the spring of 1826, the Ministry of Education was instructed to revise the entire system of public education. This was taken up by the Committee for the Arrangement of Educational Institutions, whose activities were determined by the Minister of Education Shishkov: “ Everything harmful in teaching and upbringing should be stopped, eradicated and turned to principles based on the purity of faith, loyalty and duty to the sovereign and the fatherland.
D. Dow "Minister of Education Shishkov"
The new Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov, who in his youth was friends with the progressive people of his time, Zhukovsky, Karamzin, and others, takes a reactionary position. This committee existed until 1835, and the result of its activities was the establishment of class affiliation: the children of the townspeople and peasants were to study in parish schools; in the county - merchant children, in gymnasiums - the children of the nobility. The curriculum was designed accordingly. The structure of education, created in 1804, was broken: now the universities did not supervise the lower and secondary schools, and all educational institutions of the district came under the supervision and control of a trustee, who was appointed by the Minister of Education.
Let's take a closer look at the situation in educational institutions.
Parish schools
The process and system of education in different regions Russia were, of course, different. But in general, in 686 county towns of Russia by 1825 there were only 1095 lower educational institutions. At the same time, there were 12,179 taverns and drinking houses. The curriculum was limited: the law of God, reading, writing, and the four rules of arithmetic. There were no textbooks, everything was memorized "by voice" and "by heart". The connection in one class of children 6-7 years old with young men 14-15 years old, overload (sometimes up to 70-80 students in one class), negligence, and sometimes cruelty of teachers created an atmosphere unsuitable for learning.
County schools
District school in the city of Biryuch, Belgorod Region
Their condition was somewhat better than that of the parish. There were 15 subjects: the law of God, arithmetic, geometry, grammar, general and Russian geography, elementary physics, natural science. All subjects were taught by two teachers. There were more comfortable rooms, more competent teachers and at least a minimum number of textbooks.
But there flourished cramming, rods, teachers were not always professionally trained. These educational institutions were intended for merchants, philistines, wealthy artisans. The purpose of training is to prepare students for practical activities. According to the Charter of 1828, they taught the law of God, the Russian language, sacred history, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, calligraphy, and drafting. The term of study was 3 years. Now the district school did not prepare for entering the gymnasium. The continuity of curricula was destroyed.
Gymnasiums
The curriculum of the gymnasium was versatile and extensive. The social sciences were in priority, there were no religious disciplines. The study of subjects was carried out in cycles, each of which was led by one of eight teachers. Even a simple enumeration of subjects gives an idea of the breadth of the gymnasium program:
- mathematical cycle (algebra, physics, trigonometry, geometry);
- fine arts (literature, that is, literature, aesthetics, theory of poetry);
- natural history (botany, mineralogy, zoology);
- foreign languages (Latin, French, German);
- cycle of philosophical sciences (ethics);
- economic sciences (general statistics and the Russian state, commercial theory);
- history and geography;
- music, dancing, gymnastics.
30 study hours made up the weekly curriculum. School day: from 8 to 12 and from 14 to 16 hours. On Wednesday and Saturday classes lasted from 8 am to 11 am.
To supervise the students, the positions of class supervisors were established, who were supposed to monitor the behavior of the gymnasium students during and after school hours. Corporal punishment also existed in the gymnasiums.
By the end of the first half of the 19th century in St. Petersburg, for example, there were only 5 gymnasiums, and at the end of the 50s the total number of gymnasium students in St. Petersburg was 1425 people.
Universities
Moscow University, opened in 1755, was the center of higher education not only in Moscow, but throughout Russia. In addition to him, in the first half of the 19th century there were also Derpt and Vilna universities. In the first half of the 19th century, outstanding scientists, public figures, great writers graduated from it (historians S. Solovyov, Granovsky, teacher Ushinsky, literary critic Belinsky, writers Herzen, Griboyedov, Turgenev, Lermontov and others studied there). According to the charter of 1804, Moscow University had 4 faculties: 1) physical and mathematical sciences, 2) moral and political sciences, 3) verbal sciences, 4) medical and medical sciences.
In 1805, 2 more universities were opened: Kazan and Kharkov. Universities were the centers of scientific and educational work in the educational district. Financial support Universities were mainly entrusted to the local nobility, so many of them experienced financial difficulties, and in this regard, with the arrangement of laboratories, libraries, and other things important for education. Another difficulty is the lack of students in the newly opened universities. Often the provincial nobility was wary of universities. But even at the universities themselves, the situation was not easy, especially in Kazan, when Magnitsky became the trustee of the educational district there. The author of the history of Kazan University, N.P. Zagoskin, characterized this era (1819–1826) as follows: “Mass dismissals of professors objectionable to Magnitsky, who were recognized by him as unreliable, with their replacement by guardian creatures, pharisaic good intentions, often hiding ignorance and moral shortcomings under their guise; development of hypocritical hypocrisy among teachers and students; the prohibition of some sciences and the restriction in the teaching of others within the framework of narrow and tendentiously drawn up programs.
Petersburg University was formed in 1819 from the Main Pedagogical Institute. At first it consisted of three departments: 1) legal and philosophical sciences, 2) historical and verbal sciences, 3) mathematical and physical sciences. But there was no fourth, medical department, since there was a Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg. In 1821, Magnitsky's instructions were also extended to St. Petersburg University. In the early 1940s, the departments of the Faculty of Philosophy of St. Petersburg University were transformed into independent faculties - the Faculty of History and Philology and the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. In 1854, another faculty was created - the eastern one.
Gradually, the influx of students to Russian universities increased. If at first the number of students in some universities was estimated at two dozen (for example, in St. Petersburg, Kazan), then for the period from 1833 to 1852 total number students (in all universities) increased from 2725 to 3758.
By the middle of the 19th century, the Museum of Natural Sciences, the Clinical Institute were created at Moscow University, with an eye clinic, Botanical Garden with two greenhouses, a midwifery institute with a maternity hospital, a rich library. An astronomical observatory was opened on Presnya, excellent lecturers and teachers appeared, whose lectures captivated students. That was the professor world history Timofey Nikolaevich Granovsky of Moscow University, whose lectures were attended not only by students, but also by scientists, ladies, officers and just people interested in history.
Women's education
The issue of women's education was not easily resolved in Russia. It was assumed that education was necessary only for women of noble origin. Educational institutions should only be closed. This is how the institutes of noble maidens appeared.
Smolny Institute
The most privileged institution for noble maidens was the Smolny Institute, or the Educational Society for Noble Maidens, as it used to be called. It was founded in 1764 within the walls of the Resurrection Novodevichy Convent near the village of Smolnaya. IN early XVIII centuries, on the banks of the Neva, Peter I built the Smolyany Yard, where resin was mined for the needs of the Admiralty, and the Summer Palace under Elizabeth Petrovna, which was called Smolny. Later, the Resurrection Convent was founded here, the ensemble of which was designed by V. V. Rastrelli. In 1797 the monastery was closed, an almshouse for noble widows (“Widow’s House”) was opened in the rest of its premises, and a special three-story building was built for the institute in 1806-1808 according to the project of G. Quarenghi.
The first enrollment at the institute consisted of 200 girls of noble origin from the age of 6–7; the girls were completely isolated from their families for 12 years while at the institute. Educational projects bore traces of the influence of the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau on the education of a "new breed of people". The Smolny Institute was called upon to create new type noblewomen. An extensive plan was created for the mental, moral and physical education of girls. The program of general educational subjects in it was very extensive, in addition, aesthetic subjects occupied a significant place: music, dancing, drawing.
Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"
Pupils of the institute were divided into 4 ages:
I - from 6 to 9 years;
II - from 9 to 12 years;
III - from 12 to 15 years;
IV - from 15 to 18 years.
Curriculum: the law of God and foreign languages, Russian, arithmetic, geography, history, and at the III age architecture, experimental physics and heraldry.
To prepare future housewives and mothers, pupils were taught how to manage household, embroidery, sewing. But main goal education was the formation of a "new noble woman", educated, aesthetically developed, occupying a prominent place in secular life. At the direction of Catherine II, both in the institute itself and in the homes of St. Petersburg nobles, balls and performances were held, which were attended by the pupils of the institute. Meetings were solemnly held at the end of the academic year. Courtiers, foreign ambassadors, noble nobility, senior military ranks were invited. Gradually, the number of institutes for noble maidens increased: in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov, Astrakhan, Nizhny Novgorod, Odessa, Saratov, Orenburg, Tiflis, Kyiv and other cities.
But if institutions of noble maidens were opened to train the daughters of noble families, then girls of petty-bourgeois origin (daughters of artisans, retired lower military ranks, petty merchants, petty officials) could only study in special "petty-bourgeois" educational institutions, the first of which was the Meshchansky School at Smolny institute. It taught the law of God, needlework, arithmetic, housekeeping. The purpose of the school was to educate good housewives and God-fearing mothers of families. In addition to the Meshchansky School for girls of the middle class, the Mariinsky Institute, the House of Diligence on the 13th line of Vasilyevsky Island, the Orphan Institute along the Moika Embankment in St. Petersburg, as well as orphanages in Moscow, Kronstadt and Irkutsk, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Simbirsk houses of industriousness were formed.
Private pensions
In addition to state educational institutions, private education (private boarding schools) was developed in Russia. Boarding schools were divided into 3 categories depending on the curriculum: the program of boarding houses of the first category corresponded to the program of gymnasiums, II - to county schools, III - to parochial schools. In boarding houses of the first category, mainly children of wealthy nobles studied. They paid great attention to teaching French and German, dancing, good manners, music, fencing. Boarding houses of the II category were popular among the merchants, wealthy bourgeoisie. The curriculum of boarding houses of the II category included mainly general education subjects: mathematics, history, geography, chemistry, physics and any foreign language. The children of poor nobles, small merchants and even wealthy state peasants studied in boarding schools of the III category. The programs of the best women's boarding schools approached the curriculum of the institutes of noble maidens. In the program: the law of God, Russian, German and French, arithmetic, history, geography, drawing, music, dancing, needlework. In a few metropolitan pensions, mythology, aesthetics, and natural history were also added. The tuition fee in the women's boarding school was higher than in the men's.
The peculiarity of private boarding schools: the isolation of pupils from life in general, teaching was conducted in such a way that the subjects were not connected with life, it was allowed to read only textbooks and Holy Scripture, the lives of saints, most private boarding schools were supported by foreigners, so the training was to the detriment of Russian culture. Often the graduates of these boarding schools even spoke Russian poorly.
home education
A significant part of noble children received home education and upbringing. Its quality largely depended on the cultural level of the parents themselves, although it depended little on them, because. after the nanny, at the age of 7-8 years, children were transferred to the upbringing of tutors (boys) and governesses (girls), mostly German or French descent. Often tutors did not have any education, and in their homeland they were hairdressers or lackeys. We find many examples of this in the literature of the 19th century. In addition to the tutor, they hired a Russian teacher - for the most part a gymnasium teacher, who was supposed to take a gymnasium course with them. According to contemporaries, “it was considered mandatory for a well-bred girl to know French, English and German, the ability to play the piano, some needlework, a short course in the law of God, history, geography and arithmetic, as well as something in the history of literature, mainly French.
In the rich houses of the capital, boys and girls were taught to dance by specially invited teachers. In poorer families, dance teachers were dispensed with or taught by the parents themselves. Many prominent people spoke sharply about the home education of noble children. A.S. Pushkin: “In Russia, home education is the most inadequate, the most immoral. The child is surrounded only by slaves, sees vile examples, willful or slave, does not receive any concepts of justice, of the mutual relations of people, of true honor. His education is limited to the knowledge of two or three languages and the initial foundation of all the sciences taught by some hired teacher. It is worth recalling the level of upbringing of the landowners in the poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" to understand what home education could be like.
However, among the nobles there were also examples of high morality, disinterestedness, kindness and generosity - we see this both in real life and in works of literature: the educated and intelligent Countess E.P. Rastopchin, reverent of his father, but brave in battle, Andrei Bolkonsky from L. Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace", patrons of the Tretyakov brothers - examples can be multiplied and multiplied.
G. Kordik "Countess E. Rostopchina"
Closed educational institutions for noble children
Cadet corps
The system of closed educational institutions for noble children mainly consisted of military schools (cadet corps): the Corps of Pages, the Noble Regiment, the school of columnists (staff officers), etc. Military service was considered prestigious for the nobles. Corps gave students general education and military training. In the first years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, special attention began to be paid to the cadet corps, but the failures of the Crimean War clearly showed the shortcomings in the training of officers.
Corps of Pages
It was established in 1802 and was originally located in the building of the former Vorontsov Palace. It was intended for children of the most noble noble families (sons not lower than a lieutenant general or civilians of the 2nd and 1st class.) Young men were prepared for court or military service (in the guard). Therefore, although the Corps of Pages was listed in the system of military educational institutions and was under the command of their leader, it differed sharply from them. According to the conditions of life and teaching, the corps was closer to the aristocratic court guesthouses. Much here was completely different than in other, even closed, educational institutions. One of the pupils of the Corps of Pages recalled: “A magnificent double staircase, decorated with mirrors and statues, ceiling paintings” - everything was different from the atmosphere of a government institution. The form of the pages - a black uniform like a tailcoat with a red collar, tight trousers with a red edging and a cocked hat - were sewn from fine cloth, in contrast to the uniform of the cadets. Dormitories of younger and older age were located separately. In each room there were 3 rows of beds "with good linen and a warm woolen blanket ... Near the bed there was a chest of drawers for things, books, notebooks ... Cleanliness, order and lighting were impeccable everywhere." Each pupil had a servant. The food in the building was excellent, and they were not very burdened with studies. Military training consisted of guards in the winter, and in the summer for a month - training in military service in the camps. On the day of the divorce of the guard in the palace, "tiny page guards were attached to the tall guardsmen" and followed them. The pages also took part in the parades along with the II Cadet Corps and the noble regiment.
Memoirs of contemporaries abound about the "pranks" of guards officers, noisy comradely feasts, romances with secular beauties. But when the "dashing time" came, the guards became participants in the most difficult battles. And guards officers, former cadets or pages, dancers and duelists, walked ahead of their soldiers under enemy grapeshot. Many prominent statesmen of the first half of the 19th century were brave warriors: the famous General Yermolov, Prince Vorontsov, the Tuchkov brothers...
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum
It was a very special educational institution that had no analogues in Russia. The project for the creation of the Lyceum was developed by Speransky as an educational institution for gifted children. Lyceum students had to study the history of law, jurisprudence, logic; in the historical sciences, the greatest attention was paid to national history. The literature section included fiction, stylistics, linguistics, aesthetics. "Fine Sciences" included calligraphy, drawing, "dancing", gymnastic exercises, horseback riding, fencing and swimming. Professors of the Pedagogical Institute of St. Petersburg A.P. Kunitsyn, I.K. Kaidanov, Ya.I. Kartsev, N.F. Koshansky, professor of French literature D.I. literature Fr. Mat. Gauenschild.
Director V. F. Malinovsky, a man of versatile education, progressive views, like-minded Speransky, he considered it necessary to accustom each student to independent critical and philosophical thinking, to instill in him the desire to live and work "for the common good." After the early death of Malinovsky, E. A. Engelgardt continued the traditions of lyceum education. The students highly appreciated him as a person and mentor: “He never attended classes, providing complete freedom and independence to professors-teachers ... and acted on the pupils by daily communication with them. In his junior year, he used to come almost daily after evening tea and entertain us with reading, conversation (sometimes jokingly); these conversations never had the character of pedagogical mentorship, but were adapted to age, served to develop education and instill in them the rules of morality; he especially insisted on the importance of the principle of truthfulness ... In his senior year, his conversations tended to develop the concept of duty, ”recalled M. Kokhanovsky. You can read more about the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum on our website:.
Education in the second half of the 19th century
In the second half of the XIX century. There was a need to train specialists with technical education. In the 60s XIX years V. A number of higher technical educational institutions were opened: the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology (1862), the Mining Institute (1866), the Moscow Higher Technical School (1868), etc. Along with this, new higher technical educational institutions were opened, their number increased from 7 to almost 60 By the middle of the XIX century. There were already 6 universities in Russia: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov, Derpt and Kiev. Universities were the largest scientific and educational centers of the country. They trained teachers for secondary and higher schools, doctors, and scientists. Universities were the focus of scientific thought, they became widely known thanks to outstanding scientist-professors: at Moscow University they were historians T. N. Granovsky and S. M. Solovyov; in St. Petersburg - mathematicians P. L. Chebyshev, V. Ya. Bunyakovsky, physicist E. Kh. Lenz, zoologist S. M. Kutorga; in Kazan - mathematician N. I. Lobachevsky, chemist N. N. Zinin. In addition to scientific and educational work, university scientists consulted on national economic issues, being members of various committees and commissions, conducted educational work, gave public lectures, etc. The term of study at universities was increased to 5 years. The bulk of the students in the second half of the 19th century were raznochintsy, whose property status was insufficient. Tuition fees have steadily increased. If in the 60-70s students of metropolitan universities contributed 50 rubles a year, and provincial universities - 20 rubles, then according to the charter of 1884, the fee was increased to 60 rubles, and after 1887 (that is, after the assassination attempt on Alexander III 1 March 1887, a student of St. Petersburg University Alexander Ulyanov) the fee increased to 100 rubles. in year. State scholarships were used by no more than 15% of the students of each faculty. Housing conditions for most students were difficult: they settled in poor neighborhoods, in cheaper rooms. Despite certain difficulties, university education developed. By the end of the 19th century, Russia occupied one of the first places in the world in terms of theoretical developments many branches of science: chemistry, physics, natural science, mathematics. A significant contribution to these achievements was made by university scientists D. I. Mendeleev, A. G. Stoletov, I. I. Sechenov, A. A. Markov and others.
The women's issue at that time was very acute and it became clear that the key to changing the social, economic and family status of women was education. The Ministry of Education began preparations for the reform of the girls' school. And already in August 1857, the school was opened, which received the name of the Mariinsky, because. it was under the patronage of Empress Maria Alexandrovna.
It became open and formally all-class - "girls of all free states, without distinction of estates" from 9 to 13 years old were allowed to study in it. The curriculum was designed for 7 years. In 1862, the Mariinsky women's schools were renamed gymnasiums; just as in men's gymnasiums, the full course of study in them was seven years, the shortened one was three years. In addition, at the Mariinsky gymnasiums it was allowed to create pedagogical courses that gave the gymnasium students a special education.
Women's schools of the I and II category were opened - six and three years. Such schools were opened in many cities of Russia: Tula, Smolensk, Samara, Nizhny Novgorod, Chernigov, Vologda, Saratov, Ryazan, Tver. In the second half of the 19th century, women's boarding schools were replaced by private women's gymnasiums. In 1873, a women's gymnasium by S. A. Arsenyeva was opened in Moscow. In private educational institutions, less subject to administrative control, talented teachers managed to implement new methods and progressive ideas.
In April 1876, the "Regulations" were adopted, according to which the Ministry of Education was given the right to establish higher women's courses in university cities, and on September 20, 1878, the opening of the Higher Women's Courses took place, which soon received the unofficial name "Bestuzhev". there was a great need for higher education for women. Unfortunately, the question higher education for women remained unresolved. Those few higher women's courses that existed in Russia in the 19th century (except for the Bestuzhev, Lubyanka and Guerrier courses in Moscow, higher women's courses in Kiev and Kazan) could not satisfy the growing need. there was a great need for higher education for women. Unfortunately, the issue of higher education for women remained unresolved. Those few higher women's courses that existed in Russia in the 19th century (except for Bestuzhevsky - Lubyanka and Guerrier's courses in Moscow, higher women's courses in Kiev and Kazan) could not satisfy the growing need. Moreover, these courses, being private institutions under the Regulations of 1876 and 1889, could not give those who graduated from them the right to enter the civil service.
Ministry of Agriculture Russian Federation
Far Eastern Agrarian University
Department of History.
Topic: Education in Russia in the 19th century.
Completed: 1st year student
I.L.group 8217
Cherkasov G.A.
Checked:
Elizova E.V.
Blagoveshchensk, 2008
Introduction.
1. Education of the first half XI10th century
2. Education of the second half XI10th century
2.1 Development of education.
2.2 Students of the sixties
2.3 Student unrest
Conclusion.
Bibliography.
Introduction
The beginning of the 19th century is a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 to an unprecedented degree accelerated the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people, its consolidation (rallying). There was a rapprochement with the Russian people of other peoples of Russia. Fundamental changes are becoming more and more clearly brewing in the national economy of Russia. They were generated by developing bourgeois relations in various areas of the economy, the activity of the domestic market was revived, and international trade relations grew and strengthened. In industry, the factory with free hired workers was gaining more and more importance, gradually replacing the patrimonial and sessional manufactories. Commodity relations penetrate into agricultural production, contributing to the emergence of specialized agriculture, the introduction of technical and agronomic innovations, the emergence of estates working for the external and internal markets. Growing cities, attracting more and more workers, artisans, merchants, increased the need for the domestic market. The developing commodity exchange between individual regions of the country required the improvement of means of communication, transport, and waterways. In connection with these phenomena, the need is becoming more acute not only for educated specialists, but simply for competent workers capable of servicing more complex processes of industrial and agricultural production.
In this situation, one of essential conditions progressive development of the country was public education. At the same time, according to the data of 1797, the literacy rate of the rural population was 2.7; urban - 9.2. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the bulk of the population were peasants. In addition, the criterion of literacy in the early 19th century. They were extremely low. A person was considered literate if he could mark his signature with a surname instead of a cross.
1. FORMATION OF THE FIRST HALF XI10th century
According to the charter of 1804, a harmonious and consistent system of management of all educational institutions was created. Public education was divided into 4 stages:
1. Parish schools
2. County schools
3. Gymnasiums
4. Universities
The country was divided into 6 educational districts, in each of which it was planned to found a university. But in 1804 only Kazan University was opened. Petersburg began to operate in 1819. Under Nicholas I, not a single university was opened. In the largest university, Moscow, in 1811 there were only 215 students, in 1831 there were 814.
In 1815, the well-known Armenian Lazarev family founded the Institute of Oriental Languages in Moscow and maintained it at their own expense for a hundred years. The Lazarev Institute did a lot to familiarize Russia with the culture of the East, to train Russian diplomats sent to Eastern countries.
By the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there was only one higher educational institution of a technical profile - the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg Under Alexander I, the Forest Institute was opened. Nicholas 1 patronized engineering and military education. Under him, the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology and the Moscow Technical School were opened, as well as the Academy of the General Staff, the Engineering Academy and the Artillery Academy.
In the first half of the XIX century. the development of the system of women's education continued, the foundations of which were laid under Catherine II. New institutes for noble daughters were opened in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan, Saratov, Irkutsk and other cities. Before these institutes, the goal was to educate "good wives, caring mothers, exemplary mentors for children, housewives."
Nicholas I forbade the admission to universities of the children of serfs. Officially fixed class in the public school system. Types in the education of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separated. Parish schools were intended for children of "the lowest states", they taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic. County schools were created for the children of "merchants, artisans and other city dwellers", their program included the Russian language, arithmetic, the beginnings of geometry, history and geography. IN gymnasiums children of nobles, officials, wealthy merchants received education mainly. The purpose of the gymnasiums was "preparing students for listening to academic or university courses in the sciences." In 1803, it was planned to open gymnasiums in every provincial town. This was not done right away. In 1824, only 24 gymnasiums operated on the territory of Russia. There was only one gymnasium in all of Siberia (in Tobolsk). After 30 years, the number of gymnasiums was increased to 43. Three gymnasiums began to operate in Siberia (in Tobolsk, Tomsk and Irkutsk). Many noble children were brought up in private pensions or home teachers. The tutors, usually French or German, were not very educated.
The government during this period pays attention to the development public school, in which "domestic upbringing and education" was to prevail. Developing this line in school policy, the government in the 30s limited the number of newly opened private boarding schools in the capitals, and in the already existing ones "education had to adapt to education in state institutions", only Russian citizens received the right to maintain boarding schools and teach in them.
In the 1930s, prerequisites were created in Russia for the development of the system of secondary and higher education. The university charter of 1835, which placed Russian universities under greater state control compared to the Charter of 1804, contributed to their more in-depth scientific and educational activities. Universities, along with the Academy of Sciences, became important scientific centers. In order to improve the level of university professors, it was practiced to send young university graduates abroad to prepare for an academic degree.
With the development of the economy, the increase in areas of life that require literate, educated people, the authority of knowledge and the need to acquire it increased. According to the charter of 1828, the curriculum of district schools included courses that "contributed to success in the turnover of trade and in the labors of industry." In the 1930s, real classes were opened at gymnasiums for the study of technical and commercial sciences. At universities, public lectures were given to manufacturers on technical chemistry and production technology. The oldest technical educational institutions in Russia arose: the St. Petersburg Practical Technological Institute, the Moscow Trade School (1830, now the Moscow State Technical University named after N. E. Bauman).
In the 1930s there were departmental schools(Ministries of Finance, State Property, Military, Spiritual Departments, etc.) - By the 50s, there were up to 3 thousand volost schools of the Ministry of State Property. In pre-reform Russia, this was the main rural school (by law of 1867, these schools were transferred to the Zemstvo).
With a certain expansion of the school system, the literacy rate in Russia by the end of the serf era did not exceed 1% on average. In some provinces, primarily in the capital, it was somewhat higher - from 1.5 to 2%. The cultural potential of society during this period was concentrated in the nobility. The nobility was the main bearer of professional culture.
2.EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE SECOND HALFXIXV.
2.1 Development of education.
The legacy of the serf era "was an extremely low level of literacy of the people. Even in St. Petersburg in the late 60s, the proportion of illiterates (with the exception of children under seven years old) was 44%. In Moscow, according to the 1871 census, illiterates turned out to be 55%. In provincial cities their percentage rose to 60-70, in the county - up to 70-80, in the countryside literacy was a rare occurrence.
The situation improved as the zemstvo school developed. The number of city schools also increased. Somewhat later, from the 1980s, the network of parochial schools began to expand. In many cities there were Sunday schools for adults, supported by enlightenment enthusiasts.
In the late 90s. Primary education in rural areas reached several million students. However, high population growth made it difficult to eradicate illiteracy. By the end of the XIX century. only about a quarter of Russia's population was literate. In Siberia, where there were no zemstvos, literacy was a little over 12%.
In the second half of the XIX century. some peoples of the Volga region (Mari, Mordovians, Chuvashs, etc.) acquired their own written language. Orthodox missionaries played an important role in its creation. Books began to be published in the languages of the peoples of the Volga region, national elementary schools were opened, and local intelligentsia appeared.
In the post-reform period, the cause of public education in Russia achieved considerable success. Primary education developed at the fastest pace. (Before, it was the least noticed.)
In the 1960s, the government carried out school reforms in the school business, which were part of the social transformations of those years and, to a certain extent, the result of the activities of the democratic public. In the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" published in 1864, the classlessness of the school was declared, the right to open primary schools was granted to public organizations (zemstvos, city governments); women were given the right to teach in elementary schools. All schools were subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. Encouraging the initiative of the public in organizing a public school, the government shifted all expenses to it. When discussing the elementary school reform of 1864, the government proceeded from the premise that "the cause of public education is the cause of the people themselves."
Zemstvo schools were the most common type of non-state elementary school. From 1864 to 1874, up to 10 thousand of them were opened, in the 80s - somewhat less. By 1914, more than 40,000 zemstvo schools were operating in Russia. The Zemstvo three-year school, in comparison with the ministerial one, was distinguished by a better organization of education, a higher professional level of teachers. A student in a zemstvo school, in addition to reading, writing, arithmetic and the Law of God, received elementary knowledge of natural history, geography, and history.
Among the other expenses of the zemstvos, the financing of the public school occupied an important place, amounting in 1895 to about 15% of the total budget. Teachers' seminaries were opened at the expense of zemstvos, public libraries were completed, and teachers were kept.
Along with the zemstvo, parochial schools that existed even in the pre-reform period continued to operate. Education in them (reading, writing, the Law of God, Church Slavonic reading and church singing) was lower in its level than in the Zemstvo school. The government provided financial support to parochial schools, especially in the 1980s. Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev achieved an increase in 1881-1894. their numbers by 8 times, and state appropriations for these schools - by about 40 times. In the mid-1990s, there were up to 44,000 elementary schools in Russia (multi-class, two-class, one-class). Of this number of educational institutions intended for the masses, one-class institutions accounted for more than 90%.
On the question of secondary education, there was a long struggle between supporters of real and classical direction. The former insisted on expanding the teaching of the natural sciences and modern foreign languages. The latter considered it necessary to maintain an orientation towards the study of classical antiquity as the basis of European culture. The supporters of the classical direction won the upper hand, relying on the conservative ministers of public education D. A. Tolstoy and I. D. Delyanov.
The classical gymnasium became the basis of secondary education. Compared with the pre-reform period, their number increased (1865 - 96 gymnasiums, 1871 - 123, 1882 - 136). In the 60s, real and classical gymnasiums arose. However, from the very beginning they were not completely equal in rights, and after 1866 the classical gymnasium became in fact the main form of secondary education, only graduates of male gymnasiums had the right to enter universities. Under Alexander III the government tried to limit the admission to the gymnasium of people from the common people. Delyanov's circular became notorious, in which it was not recommended to admit "children of coachmen, laundresses, small shopkeepers, etc." to the gymnasium. The real gymnasium was transformed into a six-year school without the right for its graduates to enter the university.
The government saw the predominance of classical secondary education and the strengthening of control over the work of the school as the main way to fight against the "pernicious aspirations and philosophies" generated by the "spirit of the times" of the 60s.
Music education was financed entirely by public funds. In 1862, the Russian Musical Society opened a conservatory in St. Petersburg, and in 1866 in Moscow. Unlike state educational institutions, boys and girls studied together here.
In the post-reform era, changes affected higher education. New universities were opened in Odessa (Novorossiysk based on the Richelieu Lyceum, 1865), Tomsk (1880). In the universities that received autonomy under the Charter of 1863, new departments appeared, scientific work revived, and the educational level of graduates increased. Despite the abolition of the autonomy of universities under the Charter of 1884, the curriculum in them was constantly improved and expanded. The development of higher education was hampered by the contradictory government policy. It understood that the country needed highly educated people, but at the same time, higher education was always on its suspicion as a hotbed of indestructible "sedition."
The growth of technical equipment, the improvement of industrial technology and the development of transport required the expansion and improvement of special education. Vocational-technical schools and specialized higher educational institutions were established in the country. The St. Petersburg Institute of Technology and the Moscow Trade School, founded in the pre-reform period, were transformed into higher technical institutions. In 1865, at the initiative of the Moscow Society of Agriculture, the Petrovsky Agricultural and Forestry Academy (now the Timiryazev Agricultural Academy) was opened. In a number of cities (in Tomsk, Kharkov, Kyiv, Novocherkassk) at the end of the 19th century. polytechnic and technological institutes were established; closed educational institutions (for example, in St. Petersburg - the Institute of Railway Engineers) were transformed into civilian educational institutions. By the end of the XIX century. in Russia there were over 60 state higher educational institutions, in which about 30 thousand students studied.
As for women's education, in pre-reform Russia there were class women's educational institutions, women were denied access to universities. On the eve of the bourgeois reforms, a broad movement began to give women the right to receive secondary and higher education. At the end of the 50s, non-estate women's gymnasiums appeared, but, in comparison with men's, with a smaller volume of subjects studied.
For a short time, at the end of the 1950s, women were admitted to universities as volunteers. However, according to the Charter of 1863, they were not allowed to study at universities. Therefore, many women left to study abroad. In the 70s, Russians made up 80% of all foreign students at the University of Zurich.
In Russia, many scientists actively advocated for women's education: D. I. Mendeleev, I. M. Sechenov, A. N. Beketov, N. I. Pirogov, and others. At the turn of the 60-70s, Higher Women's Courses were opened. In Moscow, the most famous were the Higher Women's Courses of Professor V. I. Guerrier (1872). The Higher Women's Courses in St. Petersburg (Bestuzhevsky - named after their director, Professor K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin), founded in 1878, played a significant role in the social and cultural life of the country. Women's courses worked according to the program of universities, but those who completed them were not entitled to receive a diploma of higher education.
One of the forms of acquiring knowledge was folk readings, the distribution of which was supported by the government. For the first time they took place in St. Petersburg in 1871, for a long time they were held only in the capital and provincial cities, and from the mid-1990s they became widespread. Interest in folk readings was great. The lecturers were, as a rule, clergymen and teachers; religious and moral, historical, military themes prevailed. Public readings were under strict government control.
The All-Russian population census of 1897 for the first time revealed a general picture of literacy and education in the country. The average literacy rate in Russia was 21.1% (among men - 29.3%, among women - 13.1%). About 1.4% of the population had higher and secondary education, both general and special.
2.2 Students of the sixties
Since the mid-1950s, the expression "young generation" has been most often associated with student youth. The conditions in which it was formed were very different from the previous time. The decisive influence on the formation of her views was exerted by the growth of the peasant and social movement, the maturation of a revolutionary situation, the strengthening of oppositional moods, the spread of educational and democratic ideas, “The most merciless denial, necessary to renew the old life, penetrated the university from society and found fertile ground here”, - wrote a contemporary. Progressive-minded representatives of the older generations began to treat students as equals, they were proud of them. “Russian society instilled in the student such a concept of his dignity, which hardly exists in any other country,” said Moscow professors. ... In the eyes of many, the student represents Russia's future hope. A St. Petersburg student of those years vividly sketched such an attitude towards young students. “Everyone, even a freshman, was cordially received not only in the living rooms, but also in serious offices of writers, scientists and public figures,” he says. “Everyone looked at the student generation as the personification of the much-desired renewal of Russia, and caressed the students, helped them in every possible way, willingly talked with them and entered into a heated debate "about important matters"
Socio-economic shifts and the revolutionary situation led to great changes in the number, composition, position, way of life, and in the socio-psychological make-up of young students. The abolition of the “set” established at the end of the 1940s, the permission to admit an unlimited number of students to universities, easier exemption from tuition fees, the restoration of the category of volunteers - all this led to a rapid increase in the number of young students, which came primarily at the expense of Moscow and Petersburg. Moscow University remained the most populous. It was followed by Kyiv, and from 1859 - St. Petersburg (even in the absence of a medical faculty). There was a significant increase in Kyiv University. In Kazan and Kharkov, on the contrary, at first there was a decrease in the number of students due to the outflow of young people to the capital's universities. However, from 1858-1859. and here it is growing steadily. The removal of barriers led to a change in the age composition of students: young people of 25-27 years old, and even older (especially among volunteers) appeared in the junior years along with yesterday’s high school students, seminarians, young men who had not yet left their parental shelter. Many of them already had experience of independent living. Others, under the influence of a passion for science typical of the time, after graduating from one faculty, entered another. According to the Ministry of Public Education, in the spring of 1861, “out of the entire mass of students, extending to almost 6,000, only 10.2% belong to those aged 16 and 17; on the contrary, 82.3% are students from 18 to 25 years old, and 7.25% - over 25 years old"
With an increase in the total number of students from the mid-50s, the proportion of raznochintsy among them increased. For an ignorant and poor young man, education opened the way to life, was the way to security, a means to achieve a position in society. The university gave him the opportunity to reveal natural abilities and talents, to feel human dignity. An ever more acute need was found in educated people. In addition, the craving for knowledge, characteristic of the 60s, also had an effect. And raznochintsy reached out to the university. For three years (1854-1857), their share in the student environment, even according to official data, increased by almost 3%. This figure shows the direction of the changes taking place. their scale, apparently, was much larger.
“Most of the students at the University of St. Vladimir, - testified the rector P. X. Bunge in 1861, - consists of young people who see higher education as a means to ensure their future. Many people have to think about science and about how to live in order to learn at the same time. Many students from the nobility did not belong to the landlord environment at all or broke off relations with it. There were many among them the sons of personal nobles, that is, the same commoners. Others came from impoverished, small landlord families with many children and could not count on help from home. These young people went to university to get an education and then earn a living by their own labor. Like their comrades from other classes, they tried to get into the number of state-owned or raised funds by giving lessons, doing paper copying, proofreading, working for magazines. Characteristically, in the early 1960s, more than half of the university students were exempted from tuition fees due to poverty. In Moscow University in 1860, out of 1653 people, 1006 were released; paid the same fee only 515.
The extreme scarcity of material resources was the lot of many students. Some of them came to the university hundreds of miles away on foot. Here, half-starved life, an unsettled life awaited them for tea. There was nothing to wear, shoes, even to buy candles. V. V. Bsrvi says that a survey of the financial situation of the students revealed facts that were almost improbable: two students lived in a closet, the third - in a wooden box made of lime. An expressive picture is drawn in their memoirs by Khudyakov, Krasnoperoy, Sychugov, Ostrogorsky, Lyubarsky and other memoirists. Bearing in mind the poverty of the majority of the students of the capital's university, Chernyshevsky called them "martyrs of his desire to be educated." Professor Kapustin testified to the existence of the most unattractive poverty among Moscow students. “Would you believe,” he wrote to Pogodin, “that there are literally dying of hunger, there are students in rags, and so on.” The large number of “extremely poor students” at Moscow University was also mentioned in an official document. The democratic origin and the cramped financial situation of many students, who from a young age had to rely only on themselves and on their own strength, aroused in them dissatisfaction with others, brought up independence, efficiency, and intolerance to phrase-mongering. The events taking place in the country forced inquisitive young minds to work hard. The severity of the class and socio-political struggle gave rise to a readiness for protest. Raznochintsy intelligentsia, by virtue of its social position was disposed to the perception of the anti-feudal educational ideology, with its denial of class, the rise of reason, science, knowledge. Enlightenment ideas and criticism of the old order and official ideology characteristic of the Enlightenment met with a lively sympathetic response in the student youth. Warm sympathy for the working people, together with faith in the life-giving power of science, urged her to bring the light of knowledge to the people. Here is how G. N. Potanin captured a typical representative of the “new people” - student (later writer) N. S. Shchukin: “He was a lively, restless person, unusually active ... He had many clients in attics and basements: kitchen men, military clerks, cab drivers, etc. He tried to enrich everyone with knowledge: he introduced one to Nekrasov's poetry, the other to Russian history ... Shchukin was a propagandist of the revolution. He was a passionate young man, like Desmoulins... Every minute he was ready to stand on the barricades. Injustice instantly turned him into a protester.
The mental movement that was taking place in the country captured the students in its orbit. Most of them, coming from low-income strata, linked their future entirely with the education they hoped to receive at the university. The growth of the public prestige of science also had an effect. A conscious desire for knowledge grew among the youth. An important prerequisite for this was the revival of the press, the beginning of the social and educational movement. In addition to compulsory lectures, young students attended public lectures, drew knowledge from books and periodicals. There was a possibility of comparison and choice. The rewriting and memorization of professorial lectures gave way to independent work with a book, passive perception - critical reflection on what he heard and read. “At home, we almost did not sit at all compiling and memorizing professorial lectures,” a student of that time recalled, “but the lectures of some professors were attended and listened to very diligently. In addition, we read a lot of serious works that directly or indirectly related to our science, heatedly reasoned and argued about what we read ... and, most importantly, developed mentally, "" extremely receptive and thought strongly"
A serious interest in science grew among the students. Either on the advice and under the guidance of professors, or in addition to their young men, they were drawn into scientific work, they themselves searched for and found literature capable of answering their requests, translated and published the best foreign works, started literary and scientific enterprises, collaborated in general literary and scientific journals.
Signs of a turnaround were first seen at the capital's university. Among the students of natural science and oriental studies, systematic conversations became the custom, where scientific literature was read and abstracted, science news was reported, where the students themselves expounded those parts of the university course that, in their opinion, were taught unsatisfactorily. Natural science students made experiments on their own, studied with a microscope. Scientific aspirations were clearly revealed among students of philology. In 1857-1860. Petersburg students published two volumes of a collection of their scientific works with an interesting "Chronicle of the internal life of the university." Oriental students began compiling dictionaries and textbooks in their specialty. Others prepared and published a collection of monuments of ancient Russian law, a Russian translation of the work of the outstanding chemist C. Gerard, a bibliography of journal articles, translated into English language for publication in England some of the works of Griboedov and Gogol. The same thing happened in other universities. Moscow students started publishing the Library of Natural and Mathematical Sciences. In 1859-1860. 12 editions of the planned work were published, consisting of translations of selected Western European literature. Similar publications were made in Kyiv, Kazan, Kharkov.
The new entered life in different ways, in different guises, where it was easy, quickly, where with difficulty, not immediately. Much depended on the situation at the university, on its traditions. In the metropolitan university, where in the times of Nikolaev highly specialized scholarship, devoid of a social vein and averse to any broad formulation of questions, prevailed, similar tendencies made themselves felt among the students. The increased interest in science was dressed here at first in old clothes. Its young adherents often imitated their mentors. Some preferred professors who read the old fashioned way. The features of the new and the old are convexly intertwined in the St. Petersburg student collection: an independent initiative, unprecedented organizational forms and a narrow academic understanding of the tasks of work drawn from the recent past. It is understandable why Dobrolyubov spoke so coolly about the first attempt at a collective student enterprise. Recognizing the usefulness of some of the materials contained in it (especially translations), the authors' acquaintance with scientific methods, he noted with disapproval in the collection "the triumph of that school that rejects general views and sees the real benefit of university studies in the study of trifles and particulars." And so it was: in 1857, St. Petersburg University still remained a stronghold of official science, in which the tendencies noted by the critic then prevailed. It is no coincidence that the publication of the collection was interrupted at the 2nd issue: university youth were seized by other matters and concerns.
In general, for students of that time, the breadth and encyclopedic interests are more characteristic. In the spider, they were interested in everything new, regardless of the chosen specialty. The appearance of something remarkable book attracted the attention of everyone, was hotly discussed by both the humanities and naturalists.
The scientific direction in the student environment of the 60s did not remain fruitless. It gave Russia a galaxy of prominent scientists. Among the students of those years were Sechenov, Timiryazev, Stoletov, Sklifosovsky, Koni, Klyuchevsky, Guerrier, Potebnya, Kirpichnikov and many other outstanding representatives of science of the second half of the 19th century.
In the pursuit of education, students were no longer limited to lectures. They met satisfaction of their requests primarily in democratic journalism, which, in the spirit of the times, devoted much space to science and served for them as an invaluable treasury of knowledge that could not always be gleaned from the audience. The articles and reviews published there on political economy, philosophy, history, and natural science were distinguished by their novel approach, broad and bold formulation of questions, which appealed to the younger generation. The radical and revolutionary interpretation of the problems of modernity, the denial of religion, materialism in natural science, and the ideas of utopian socialism found a lively response among the youth. “In our journals,” the report of the 3rd department for 1861 reported, “there appeared articles imbued with the spirit of socialism and materialism. These articles are easily accepted by the younger generation and most of the students.
Advanced journalism has gained great influence among the students, influenced the formation of the worldview. “It can be said without exaggeration,” Nnkitenko argued, “that the present young generation is mostly brought up on the ideas of Kolokol, Sovremennik and completes its education on the ideas of the Russian Word. The best journals of the 1940s, articles by Belinsky and Herzen retained a lively interest. Herzen's "Amateurism in Science" was read aloud by St. Petersburg students at their literary meetings. When the first edition of Belinsky's collected works appeared on sale, young people literally besieged Kozhanchikov's store in St. Petersburg. Several hundred copies of the 1st volume sold out in two or three days. Avidly read Belinsky, Herzen and in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov, Kyiv.
A receptive readership was found among the students of the editions of the Free Russian Printing House of Herzen and Ogarev. Interest in them turned out to be so great that no prohibitions and barriers could prevent their penetration into Russia. Students were among the most zealous distributors of them. “Thanks to Herzen for his Star, for his Bell. This is the new Messiah for us!” - St. Petersburg student N. N. Rashevsky wrote to a comrade. From the Bell, according to V. Lind, "a significant part of the Moscow students drew ... their opinions both on the peasant question and on current politics."
Forbidden literature was widely disseminated among students from the works of Herzen and Ogarev. The circle of conservatives disappeared, and the socialist doctrines, on the contrary, gained more and more strength. In an effort to free themselves from prejudice, young people were imbued with a skeptical attitude towards church dogmas. “Unbelief is spreading among the younger generation,” Pogodin complained. Atheistic and materialistic views were widespread among the students. There was a growing critical attitude towards the official ideology, towards the existing authorities and their representatives.
The main interest at that turbulent time was focused on the issues of the day, which absorbed attention, often pushing educational and academic ones into the background. A contemporary assured that almost all university youth shared the liberation aspirations of the 60s. According to him, "the comprehensive revival of Russia, and especially the noble people, was not only on the tongue, but also in the mind and heart." The peasant question attracted unflagging attention. With the social heterogeneity of the students, the attitude to the essence of the matter was not the same: the heirs of the landlord latifundia and young men from the lower classes could not experience the same feelings about this. Still, in the mass, the students were "on the side of the broadest denouement of the peasant cause." Democratic-minded young people were acutely dissatisfied with the government's reform activities, which seemed to them too slow and sluggish; there was a growing conviction that the desired goal would be achieved only when the people "show their fist to the government or take up the matter themselves." The youth enthusiastically sang revolutionary songs imbued with faith in the imminence of a peasant uprising. Of course, not everyone was so radical. Others adhered to liberal positions.
The students were keenly interested in the course of the peasant affairs. Leaving home, they tried to find out what they could about the work of the provincial committees. The Tver Committee, led by Unkovsky, supplied those who wished with lithographed minutes of their meetings. Many students were present at the Moscow noble meeting during the development of a constitutional address, at the famous noble meeting in Tver, which recognized the inconsistency of the Regulations on February 19, 1861. The reform did not satisfy the students and did not evoke greetings from them. The subsequent peasant uprisings strengthened the hope of the peasantry as a supporting force in the future coup in the democratic part of the youth. This, in turn, served as a new impetus to the strengthening of revolutionary sentiment among the students and their involvement in the revolutionary movement.
The years of social upsurge and revolutionary situation are marked by numerous student "stories" - clashes of students with the police or military officials, then with the university authorities, then with teachers. The characteristic features of these speeches are the extremely easy flammability of the students, their solidarity, their unfailing readiness to support their comrades, the immediate transition of private conflicts into university-wide ones. The former patriarchal relations with the inspection were a thing of the past. Until recently, the rough-and-tumble treatment of young people in the universities now evoked a unanimous rebuff. Disobedience to the authorities grew. Students began to openly protest against those orders of the inspector, the trustee, the governor-general himself, which they considered illegal. The clashes were especially acute where the authorities acted by the same methods.
At the beginning of 1857, Kazan students booed the inspector and trustee, who had to retire after that. A few months later in Kyiv, in a public place (in the theater), an officer (colonel!) had to pay a heavy price for his rude treatment of one of the university students. That same autumn, in Moscow, students stood up for their comrades beaten by the police. Their energetic protest against lawlessness caused a wide response in society: there was general indignation at the actions of the police. The government, which at that time did not dare to “stretch the reins”, in the words of Chicherin, considered it necessary to punish especially “distinguished” policemen. In the spring of 1858, student "history" at Kharkov University made a splash. After the arrest and expulsion of two students from the city on the orders of the Governor-General Luzhin and the refusal of the university authorities to petition for their return, Kharkov students decided to protest, filing petitions for dismissal from the university. Within one day, the board received 138 petitions. Only by cunning did the university authorities manage to hush up the matter.
Only a few incidents of this kind, more typical, are named here. In fact, there were many more. They took place here and there and served as an indicator of the growing social ferment. Still devoid of a direct political orientation, they testified to the excited situation in the country, the intransigence of the younger generation to arbitrariness, unwillingness to unquestioningly obey the authorities, and readiness to fight. In a word, these were already harbingers of an imminent revolutionary situation.
2.3 Struggling with university conventions
The old regime in the universities was crumbling. A few years ago, students were, one might say, in a semi-military position. Subordinate to the strictest discipline, subjected to a captious, often rude attitude on the part of trustees, inspectors, and even professors, they had no voice in university affairs. Now, in a different situation, excited by everything that was happening, having grown quantitatively, having taken in a strong stream of various ranks, the student youth has become in many ways different. Self-esteem, fighting spirit, assertiveness made themselves felt in everything in relations with professors and superiors, in behavior inside and outside the university. The crisis in government policy was accompanied by a loosening of student oversight. In 1855-56. the state-owned ones were still under round-the-clock supervision of the university police, they could leave only with the permission of the inspector. It was forbidden to smoke at the university. The dress code was strictly observed. Hair was supposed to be cut short, but the inspectors no longer dared to continue to strictly punish for non-compliance with the rules, limiting themselves only to comments. Gradually, many prohibitions lost their force. The punishment cell retreated into the realm of legends. Students began to grow long hair, start mustaches, beards. Not only did they begin to smoke at the universities, the authorities themselves put smoking rooms at the disposal of the young men. Where the inspectorate behaved in the old fashioned way, the number of “misconducts” increased greatly, as students defiantly stopped fulfilling the requirements that until recently were considered mandatory. At the same time, discontent accumulated, leading to open clashes.
The face of the student body was changing rapidly. “The uniform was the same, but other people were dressed in this uniform; the students of the 1860s were so different from the students of the 1840s,” noted the inspector of Moscow University (and his graduate) P. D. Shestakov. Even students of different courses differed greatly: newcomers who entered life in an atmosphere of a revolutionary situation turned out to be more independent than their older comrades. “Our youth has changed a lot in the last three or four years,” Pisarev wrote in 1863. “Already in 1858 and 1859, the students who entered the university were not like us, students of the third and fourth courses. Entering the university, we were timid, inclined to reverence, disposed to look at the lectures and words of professors as spiritual food and manna from heaven. The new students, on the other hand, were bold and cheeky and fledged extremely quickly, so that in just two months after admission they turned out to be the masters of the university and themselves raised practical questions and serious disputes in student circles.
In the spring of 1858, state students were transferred to private apartments. Giving young people control over themselves and their time made them more independent and mature in their own eyes. Contributed to this self-awareness and the early habit of unsecured raznochintsy to independent work. And the age composition of the students, as already mentioned, was now not the same as before.
The increased independence of young people manifested itself in many ways. The attitude towards learning has changed. Classes lost their former school character. Attendance at lectures became virtually free, and students widely used the opportunity to choose. Their attitude to teaching became more independent. “We soon stopped attending the lectures of strict and boring professors who gave science in some dead forms,” writes a student of that time, “and went to the audience only to those who tried to apply science to solving pressing issues, to destroying the old evil and revealing before us are new, fresh ideals. Sometimes preference was given to courses taught at other faculties. It happened that students entered into an argument with the professor right in the classroom during classes, and even on the pages of print.
The increased activity of young students was also expressed in all the speeches against individual professors. Most often, the protest was directed against teachers who did not satisfy students with the scientific level or ideological orientation of their lectures. We saw that the situation created by the reactionary regime favored the promotion of well-intentioned mediocrities to the departments, gave rise to stagnation and routine in teaching. Backwardness in science, inertia of views have become not uncommon in the "academic class". The energy of the younger generation was directed against such and such consequences of the recent past. Sometimes the protest was caused by negligence in teaching, tactless behavior or rudeness of the professor, pickiness in exams, inattention to the requests of students, and treatment of them as if they were minors. The students of those years zealously guarded their self-esteem, showing heightened sensitivity in this respect. There were frequent speeches against foreign professors who read in an obscure language, ideologically distant from their listeners, indifferent to their needs.
More than anywhere else, there were such professors in Kazan. It is no coincidence that student protests here have acquired a special scope. Kazan students took a conscious line to expel some of the professors from the university. As a result, the physiologist V.F. Bervi had to leave (this case became widely known thanks to Dobrolyubov’s speech in support of the students of the ancients F.L. Struve to R.L. Scharbs, the chemist F.X. Grahs, the historian V.M. F. O. Elachich: From student correspondence and other sources it is clear that there was an intention to organize a wider “roundup” of objectionable professors.
They protested not only against the mediocre and backward. Sometimes dissatisfaction was directed against talented scientists, such as the physicist I. A. Bolzapi. His lectures were not always clear to the audience, and besides, the professor did not measure his requirements with their knowledge. Elacic was dissatisfied because he refused to read Russian and used the surgical clinic for private practice.
They were also going to boo the lawyer V. N. Nikolsky. It got to the point that his patron dean S.I. Barshev had to publicly dissuade students from this. On the other hand, Nikolsky was taken under the protection of the radical Whistleblower (a handwritten student magazine). In the same year, 1859, young people stopped attending Ornatsky's lectures and thus forced his resignation. At St. Petersburg University, students were forced to leave the department of another routinist - Ya. I. Barshsva. In Kharkov, it was enough to write down verbatim and distribute to the public Chernyaev's obscure lecture on botany, so that the further stay of this professor at the university turned out to be impossible. Students from other faculties took part in the protests against this or that professor (and sometimes were in the lead). So, in the speech against Warnek, the main role belonged not to physicians, but to lawyers; science students even tried to defend it. The goal was not so much to remove a particular professor as to encourage students to have a voice in university affairs.
Of course, not all student unrest led to such an outcome. Not all of them pursued this goal. Sometimes they were limited to "demonstrations" on some specific occasions.
Starting another protest movement, they took risks and sacrifices, since for the most part the case was not without the exclusion of the “instigators” from the university. In some cases (in Kazan and Kyiv), the question even arose of turning the perpetrators into soldiers. But, indignant against the recalcitrant youth, taking one after another restrictive measures, the government in the aggravated situation of those years was still forced to some extent to reckon with public opinion. Students expelled from one university, as a rule, soon found themselves in another. And since, moreover, young people often succeeded in getting their way, they were convinced of the need for collective action to defend their claims.
The students were not limited to protests. They expressed their approval just as actively, tried to influence the topics of professorial lectures, and sometimes they themselves looked for teachers. Thus, the citizens of Kazan turned to P.V. Pavlov, inviting him to teach archeology; the letter was signed by all philologists and deputies of other faculties. Thunderous applause accompanied the youth from Bulich's lecture in 1859, despite the recent categorical prohibition (by order of the tsar!) to express approval or reproach to the professor in the audience. The authorities failed to force them to fulfill the royal will. Neither the warning of the inspector, nor the exhortations of Bulich herself, nor the presence of the trustee had any effect: the students did not want to give up the positions they had won. The case ended with the exclusion of 18 young men. A curious document was preserved in the files of the Oriental Faculty of St. Petersburg University: the students informed the rector about the success of their search for a teacher of Turkish and Tatar languages: the Tatar, Mullah X. Feiz-Khanov, agreed to give them several lectures a week free of charge. All these speeches were not random, isolated, single facts. They united with a clearly conscious intention to change the university order.
Students sought self-government, the abolition of administrative arbitrariness, the right to vote in university affairs. The essence of their aspiration was not so much in the struggle for their corporate rights (as is often believed), but in consonance with the democratic and liberation ideas of the era. The tendency towards corporatism, inherent in the Middle Ages and partly preserved in Western European and Dorpat universities, with the isolation characteristic of corporations and defending their private interests, was alien to Russian universities in the middle of the 19th century. The progressive youth of Russia did not at all strive to revive these outdated forms. In their demands, the students proceeded from a firm intention to change the whole system of university life in the direction of its democratization. They also sought the abolition of course exams, compulsory attendance of lectures and other formalities that did not correspond, in the opinion of the sixties, to the high purpose of the university. The same approach was characteristic of the democratic and liberal press, where the idea of "freedom of learning" was promoted.
At the turn of the 1950s and 1960s, the whole system of student life changed. Along with traditional close circles, broad associations and organizations arose. A striking manifestation of the new was the student gathering, the organ of student public opinion. The situation was revolutionary. For the first time at the university, the voice of the students is heard as a collective defending their rights, making their demands.
Conclusion.
In 1914, 50 years after the school reform, barely half of the children of the corresponding age were enrolled in primary education. IN Western Europe already in the last quarter of the 19th century, full literacy of the population was achieved. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a transition began in Russia to universal incomplete secondary education for young people in the volume of 7-8 classes. According to available data, the literacy of the population of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was about 40%, the peasantry for the most part remained illiterate.
A notable phenomenon was the spread of private educational institutions (V.M. Bekhterov’s Psychoneurological Institute, P.F. Lesgaft Free High School, etc.)
There have been some shifts in the formulation of teacher education, several higher pedagogical institutions have been opened, including the Women's Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg.
The era of the XIX century is characterized by the strengthening of the role of the younger generation in the life of the country. Supporters of the new pinned their hopes on the renewal of Russia. Defenders of the old treated him with undisguised fear. During the period of restructuring the entire socio-economic structure and the associated reassessment of values public consciousness the comparative dignity of generations began to be perceived differently. The indisputable authority that the elders had until then enjoyed began to be questioned in the era of the Enlightenment. At the same time, respect for the ranks, for the "noble" (noble) origin began to be considered a sign of backwardness. It was supplanted by the recognition of the highest value of the mind, education, personal virtues. More and more weight was acquired by people who are receptive to the new, moreover, educated or seeking education students, lyceum students, young officers, writers, teachers
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Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation Far Eastern Agrarian University Department of History. Abstract Topic: Education in Russia in the 19th century. Completed by: st
