Causes and results of the Crimean war of 1853 56. Crimean War. Briefly
Causes of the war
The Russian Empire: sought to revise the regime of the Black Sea straits; increasing influence in the Balkan Peninsula.
Ottoman Empire: wanted to suppress the national liberation movement in the Balkans; the return of Crimea and Black Sea coast Caucasus.
England, France: they hoped to undermine the international authority of Russia, to weaken its position in the Middle East; tear away from Russia the territories of Poland, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland; strengthen its position in the Middle East, using it as a sales market.
These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions. Ottoman Empire inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.
Russia and France had a diplomatic conflict over the control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Russia under the terms of the Adrianople peace treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4, 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.
The course of hostilities
October 1853 - Nicholas I signed the Manifesto on the beginning of the war with Turkey.
Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). Artillery was also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
Russo-Turkish War was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries.
As a result Sinop battle The Russian Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish squadron. The Turkish fleet was defeated within a few hours.
This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg.
The second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - the Anglo-French intervention in the Crimea, the appearance of warships of the Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and in Kamchatka. main goal The joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began the landing of the expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
After the battle on the river Alma the enemy laid siege to Sevastopol. Sevastopol was a first-class naval base, impregnable from the sea. The Russian fleet could not resist the enemy, so some of the ships were sunk in front of the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, which further strengthened the city from the sea.
Defense of Sevastopol
Defense under the leadership of admirals Kornilov V.A., Nakhimov P.S. and Istomin V.I. lasted 349 days with a 30,000-strong garrison and naval crews. During this period, the city was subjected to five massive bombardments, as a result of which part of the city, the Ship Side, was practically destroyed.
On October 5, 1854, the first bombardment of the city began. It was attended by the army and navy. The artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the huge superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was badly damaged and was forced to retreat. After that, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in the bombing of the city. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important not only military, but also a moral victory. Their joy was overshadowed by the death during the shelling of Vice Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was headed by Nakhimov, who, for his distinction in the defense of Sevastopol, was promoted to admiral on March 27, 1855. F. Roubaud. In July 1855, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The attempts of the Russian army under the command of Prince Menshikov A.S. to pull back the forces of the besiegers ended in failure (the battle of Inkerman, Evpatoria and Chernaya Rechka). Around the city, the enemy's ring was gradually shrinking. Russian troops were forced to leave the city. The offensive of the enemy ended there. Subsequent military operations in the Crimea, as well as in other parts of the country, were not of decisive importance for the Allies. Things were somewhat better in the Caucasus, where Russian troops not only stopped the Turkish offensive, but also occupied the fortress of Kars. On August 27, 1855, French troops stormed the southern part of the city and captured the height that dominated the city - Malakhov Kurgan.
The loss of Malakhov Kurgan decided the fate of Sevastopol. On the evening of August 27, 1855, by order of General M.D. Gorchakov, the Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge to the northern part. The battles for Sevastopol ended.
Military operations in the Caucasus
Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world
At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed, under the terms of which the Black Sea was declared neutral, a ban on having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. Similar demands were made to Turkey. In addition, Russia was deprived of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, had to return the fortress of Kars. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia.
Heroes of the Crimean War
Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich
(1806 - October 17, 1854, Sevastopol), Russian Vice Admiral. Since 1849 the chief of staff, since 1851 the actual commander of the Black Sea Fleet. During the Crimean War, one of the leaders of the heroic defense of Sevastopol.
On October 5, the enemy undertook the first massive bombardment of the city from land and sea. On this day, when bypassing the defensive orders, V.A. Kornilov was mortally wounded in the head on Malakhov Hill. “Defend Sevastopol,” were his last words.
Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov
In early November, Nakhimov learned that the Turkish squadron under the command of Osman Pasha, heading for the shores of the Caucasus, left the Bosporus and, on the occasion of a storm, entered the Sinop Bay. Without waiting for the steam frigates that Vice Admiral Kornilov led to reinforce the Russian squadron, Nakhimov decided to attack the enemy, relying primarily on combat and moral qualities Russian sailors. For the victory, Nicholas I awarded Nakhimov the Order of St. George, 2nd degree.
In the spring of 1855, the second and third assaults on Sevastopol were heroically repulsed. In March, Nicholas I granted Nakhimov for military distinctions with the rank of admiral. In July, an enemy bullet hit him in the temple. Without regaining consciousness, Pavel Stepanovich died two days later.
Admiral Nakhimov was buried in Sevastopol in the Cathedral of St. Vladimir, next to the graves of Lazarev, Kornilov and Istomin. With a large gathering of people, admirals and generals carried his coffin, seventeen in a row stood a guard of honor from army battalions and all the crews of the Black Sea Fleet, drums sounded and a solemn prayer service, a cannon salute thundered. In the coffin of Pavel Stepanovich were hung two admiral's flags and a third, priceless one - the stern flag of the battleship Empress Maria, the flagship of the Sinop victory, tattered by cannonballs.
Reasons for the defeat of Russia
· Economic backwardness of Russia;
· Political isolation of Russia;
· Absence steam fleet from Russia;
· Poor supply of the army;
Lack of railroads.
Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, had to return the fortress of Kars, and also lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia.
CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856
Causes of war and balance of power. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia participated in the Crimean War. Each of them had own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.
For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30s and 40s XIX years V. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.
The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to secure privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage of the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation. Thus, it would seem that a private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute over the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war.
Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smooth-bore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. The artillery is outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no good communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, as well as human replacements. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
The course of military operations. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were brought into Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared war on Russia. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.
The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first one is actually Russian-Turkish campaign- was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.
The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began the landing of an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.
The main part of the Russian army undertook distracting operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.
In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right to protect the Danubian Principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating was the condition of the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to security. southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nikolaev's rule, stirred up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. social structure population.
Development of agriculture.
The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.
Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.
Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. Palace coup 1801 and accession to the throne of Alexander I. "Days of Alexander great start".
Peasant question. Decree "on free ploughmen". Government measures in the field of education. State activity M.M. Speransky and his plan of state reforms. Creation of the State Council.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.
Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of the war. The results and significance of the war.
Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. military settlements.
Foreign policy tsarism in the first quarter XIX V.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. Significance of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization political system Russia. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. censorship statute. The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "on obligated peasants".
Polish uprising 1830-1831
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.
Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Reasons for the war. The course of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.
Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.
The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. Significance of joining the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.
Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. " philosophical writing"P.Ya. Chaadaeva. Westerners. Moderates. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.
Peasant reform. Preparing for reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. duties of the peasants. Temporary state.
Zemstvo, judicial, city reforms. financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. censorship rules. military reforms. Significance of bourgeois reforms.
Socio-economic development of Russia second half of XIX V. The social structure of the population.
Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.
The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.
The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition". Assassination of Alexander II March 1, 1881 Collapse" People's Will".
Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Striking fight. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. factory law.
Liberal populism in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".
Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.
Alexander III. Manifesto on the "immutability" of the autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.
International Position Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the foreign policy program of the country. The main directions and stages of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.
Russia in the system international relations after the Franco-Prussian War. Union of three emperors.
Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).
- Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Enlightenment, 1996.
Mid 19th century for Russian Empire was marked by a tense diplomatic struggle for the Black Sea straits. Attempts to resolve the issue through diplomacy failed and led to a conflict altogether. In 1853, the Russian Empire went to war against the Ottoman Empire for dominance in the Black Sea straits. 1853-1856, in short, is a clash of interests of European states in the Middle East and the Balkans. The leading European states formed an anti-Russian coalition, which included Turkey, Sardinia and Great Britain. The Crimean War of 1853-1856 covered large territories and stretched for many kilometers. Active fighting proceeded in several directions at once. The Russian Empire was forced to fight not only directly in the Crimea, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and Far East. Significant were also clashes on the seas - Black, White and Baltic.
Causes of the conflict
The causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are defined differently by historians. Yes, British scientists main reason wars consider an unprecedented increase in the aggressiveness of Nikolaev Russia, the emperor led to the Middle East and the Balkans. Turkish historians, on the other hand, define the main reason for the war as Russia's desire to establish its dominance over the Black Sea straits, which would make the Black Sea an internal reservoir of the empire. The dominant causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are illuminated by Russian historiography, which claims that Russia's desire to improve its shaky position in the international arena prompted the clash. According to most historians, a whole complex of causal events led to the war, and for each of the participating countries, the prerequisites for the war were their own. Therefore, until now, scientists in the current conflict of interest have not come to a single definition of the cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Conflict of Interest
Having considered the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, let's move on to the beginning of hostilities. The reason for this was the conflict between the Orthodox and Catholics for control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. Russia's ultimatum demand to give her the keys to the temple provoked a protest from the Ottomans, who were actively supported by France and Great Britain. Russia, not resigned to the failure of its plans in the Middle East, decided to switch to the Balkans and introduced its units into the Danubian principalities.
Course of the Crimean War 1853-1856
It would be appropriate to divide the conflict into two periods. The first stage (November 1953 - April 1854) is directly the Russian-Turkish conflict, during which Russia's hopes for support from Great Britain and Austria did not come true. Two fronts were formed - in Transcaucasia and Crimea. The only significant Russian victory was the Battle of Sinop in November 1853, during which the Black Sea fleet of the Turks was defeated.
and the battle of Inkerman
The second period lasted until February 1856 and was marked by the struggle of the union of European states with Turkey. The landing of Allied troops in the Crimea forced Russian troops move deeper into the peninsula. Sevastopol became the only impregnable citadel. In the autumn of 1854, the brave defense of Sevastopol began. The mediocre command of the Russian army hindered rather than helped the defenders of the city. For 11 months, sailors led by Nakhimov P., Istomin V., Kornilov V. fought off enemy attacks. And only after it became impractical to hold the city, the defenders, leaving, blew up the weapons depots and burned everything that could burn, thereby frustrating the plans of the Allied forces to take over the naval base.
Russian troops attempted to divert the attention of the allies from Sevastopol. But they all turned out to be unsuccessful. Clash near Inkerman, offensive to the Evpatoria region, the battle on the Black River was not brought Russian army glory, but showed its backwardness, outdated weapons and inability to properly conduct military operations. All these actions brought Russia's defeat in the war closer. But it is worth noting that the allied forces also got it. The forces of England and France were exhausted by the end of 1855, and there was no point in transferring new forces to the Crimea.
Caucasian and Balkan fronts
The Crimean War of 1853-1856, which we tried to briefly describe, also covered the Caucasian front, the events on which developed somewhat differently. The situation there was more favorable for Russia. Attempts to invade Transcaucasia were unsuccessful. And Russian troops were even able to advance deep into the Ottoman Empire and capture the Turkish fortresses of Bayazet in 1854 and Kare in 1855. The actions of the allies in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Far East did not have significant strategic success. And rather, they depleted the military forces of both the allies and the Russian Empire. Therefore, the end of 1855 was marked by the virtual cessation of hostilities on all fronts. The belligerents sat down at the negotiating table to sum up the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Completion and results
Negotiations between Russia and the allies in Paris ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. Under pressure internal problems, the hostile attitude of Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Russia was forced to accept the demands of the allies to neutralize the Black Sea. The prohibition to justify naval bases and the fleet deprived Russia of all the achievements of previous wars with Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands and was forced to give control of the Danubian principalities into the hands of the allies. Bessarabia was transferred to the Ottoman Empire.
In general, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were ambiguous. The conflict pushed the European world to the total rearmament of its armies. And this meant that the production of new weapons was being activated and the strategy and tactics of warfare were radically changing.
Having spent millions of pounds sterling on the Crimean War, it led the country's budget to complete bankruptcy. Debts to England forced the Turkish sultan to agree to the freedom of religious worship and the equality of all, regardless of nationality. Great Britain dismissed the Aberdeen cabinet and formed a new one led by Palmerston, who canceled the sale of officer ranks.
The results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 forced Russia to turn to reforms. Otherwise, she could slide into the abyss social problems which, in turn, would lead to a popular revolt, the result of which no one would undertake to predict. The experience of the war was used in the military reform.
The Crimean War (1853-1856), the defense of Sevastopol and other events of this conflict left a significant mark on history, literature and painting. Writers, poets and artists in their works tried to reflect all the heroism of the soldiers who defended the Sevastopol citadel, and the great significance of the war for the Russian Empire.
Crimean War (briefly)
Brief description of the Crimean War 1853-1856
The main reason for the Crimean War was the clash of interests in the Balkans and the Middle East of such powers as Austria, France, England and Russia. Leading European states sought to open up Turkish possessions in order to increase the sales market. At the same time, Turkey in every possible way wanted to take revenge after the defeats in the wars with Russia.
The trigger mechanism of the war was the problem of revising the legal regime of the ship's course Russian fleet the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, which was recorded in 1840 in the London Convention.
And the reason for the start of hostilities was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the fidelity of the ownership of the shrines (the Holy Sepulcher and the Bethlehem Church), which were at that moment on the territory of the Ottoman Empire. In 1851, Türkiye, incited by France, gives the keys to the shrines to the Catholics. In 1853, Emperor Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum excluding a peaceful resolution of the issue. At the same time, Russia occupies the Danubian principalities, which leads to war. Here are its main points:
· In November 1853, the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, and the Russian ground operation was able to push back the enemy troops by crossing the Danube.
· Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, France and England in the spring of 1854 declare war on Russia, attacking the Russian ports of Odessa, the Addan Islands, etc. from August 1854. These blockade attempts were unsuccessful.
· Autumn 1854 - the landing of sixty thousand troops in the Crimea to capture Sevastopol. Heroic defense of Sevastopol for 11 months.
· On the twenty-seventh of August, after a series of unsuccessful battles, they were forced to leave the city.
On March 18, 1856, the Paris Treaty of Peace was drawn up and signed between Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, England, France, Turkey and Russia. The latter lost part of the fleet and some bases, and the Black Sea was recognized as a neutral territory. In addition, Russia lost power in the Balkans, which significantly undermined its military power.
According to historians, the defeat in the Crimean War was based on the strategic miscalculation of Nicholas I, who pushed the feudal-serf and economically backward Russia into a military conflict with powerful European states.
This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out cardinal political reforms.
Diplomatic training, course of hostilities, results.
Causes of the Crimean War.
Each side that took part in the war had its own claims and reasons for the military conflict.The Russian Empire: sought to revise the regime of the Black Sea straits; increasing influence in the Balkan Peninsula.
Ottoman Empire: wanted to suppress the national liberation movement in the Balkans; the return of the Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.
England, France: they hoped to undermine the international authority of Russia, to weaken its position in the Middle East; tear away from Russia the territories of Poland, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland; strengthen its position in the Middle East, using it as a sales market.
By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, in addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued.
These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.
Russia and France had a diplomatic conflict over the control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Russia under the terms of the Adrianople peace treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.
The course of military operations.
October 20, 1853 - Nicholas I signed the Manifesto on the beginning of the war with Turkey.The first stage of the war (November 1853 - April 1854) is Russian-Turkish military operations.
Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, hoping for the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. At the same time, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smooth-bore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies.
The artillery is outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no good communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, as well as human replacements. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
The Russian-Turkish war was fought with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries.
As a result of the Battle of Sinop, the Russian Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish squadron. The Turkish fleet was defeated within a few hours.
During a four-hour battle in the Sinop Bay (Turkish naval base), the enemy lost a dozen and a half ships and over 3 thousand people were killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. Only the 20-gun high-speed steamer Taif with an English adviser on board was able to escape from the bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet was taken prisoner. The losses of the Nakhimov squadron amounted to 37 people killed and 216 wounded. Some ships came out of the battle with heavy damage, but not one was sunk. Sinop battle inscribed in gold letters in the history of the Russian fleet.
This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - the Anglo-French intervention in the Crimea, the appearance of warships of the Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began the landing of an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
After the battle on the river Alma the enemy laid siege to Sevastopol. Sevastopol was a first-class naval base, impregnable from the sea. In front of the entrance to the raid - on the peninsulas and capes - there were powerful forts. The Russian fleet could not resist the enemy, so some of the ships were sunk in front of the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, which further strengthened the city from the sea. More than 20,000 sailors went ashore and lined up along with the soldiers. 2 thousand ship guns were also transported here. Eight bastions and many other fortifications were built around the city. Earth, boards, household utensils were used - everything that could delay bullets.
But for the work there were not enough ordinary shovels and picks. Theft flourished in the army. During the war years, this turned into a disaster. In this regard, a well-known episode comes to mind. Nicholas I, outraged by all sorts of abuses and theft found almost everywhere, in a conversation with the heir to the throne (the future Emperor Alexander II) shared what he had made and shocked him with the discovery: “It seems that in all of Russia only two people do not steal - you and me” .
Defense of Sevastopol.
Defense under the leadership of admirals Kornilov V.A., Nakhimov P.S. and Istomin V.I. lasted 349 days with a 30,000-strong garrison and naval crews. During this period, the city was subjected to five massive bombardments, as a result of which part of the city, the Ship Side, was practically destroyed.On October 5, 1854, the first bombardment of the city began. It was attended by the army and navy. From land, 120 guns fired at the city, from the sea - 1340 guns of ships. During the shelling, over 50 thousand shells were fired at the city. This fiery whirlwind was supposed to destroy the fortifications and crush the will of their defenders to resist. At the same time, the Russians responded with accurate fire from 268 guns. The artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the huge superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was badly damaged (8 ships were sent for repairs) and was forced to retreat. After that, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in the bombing of the city. The fortifications of the city were not seriously damaged. The decisive and skillful rebuff of the Russians came as a complete surprise to the allied command, which expected to take the city with little bloodshed. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important not only military, but also a moral victory. Their joy was overshadowed by the death during the shelling of Vice Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was headed by Nakhimov, who, for his distinction in the defense of Sevastopol, was promoted to admiral on March 27, 1855.
In July 1855, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The attempts of the Russian army under the command of Prince Menshikov A.S. to pull back the forces of the besiegers ended in failure (the battle of Inkerman, Evpatoria and Chernaya Rechka). The actions of the field army in the Crimea did little to help the heroic defenders of Sevastopol. Around the city, the enemy's ring was gradually shrinking. Russian troops were forced to leave the city. The offensive of the enemy ended there. Subsequent military operations in the Crimea, as well as in other parts of the country, were not of decisive importance for the Allies. Things were somewhat better in the Caucasus, where Russian troops not only stopped the Turkish offensive, but also occupied the fortress of Kars. During the Crimean War, the forces of both sides were undermined. But the selfless courage of the Sevastopol people could not compensate for the shortcomings in armament and provision.
On August 27, 1855, French troops stormed the southern part of the city and captured the height that dominated the city - Malakhov Kurgan. Hosted on ref.rf
The loss of Malakhov Kurgan decided the fate of Sevastopol. On this day, the defenders of the city lost about 13 thousand people, or more than a quarter of the entire garrison. On the evening of August 27, 1855, by order of General M.D. Gorchakov, the Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge to the northern part. The battles for Sevastopol ended. The Allies did not achieve his surrender. The Russian armed forces in Crimea survived and were ready for further fighting. They numbered 115 thousand people. against 150 thousand people. Anglo-French-Sardinians. The defense of Sevastopol was the culmination of the Crimean War.
Military operations in the Caucasus.
In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.
The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world.
At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. At the same time, she lost the right to patronize the Danubian principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating was the condition of the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing: Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia passed under the supreme authority of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nikolaev's rule, stirred up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforms state.
Reasons for the defeat of Russia:
.Economic backwardness of Russia;
.Political isolation of Russia;
.Lack of a steam fleet in Russia;
.Poor supply of the army;
.Lack of railways.
In three years, Russia lost 500 thousand people in killed, wounded and captured. The allies also suffered great losses: about 250 thousand killed, wounded and died of disease. As a result of the war, Russia lost its positions in the Middle East to France and England. Its prestige in the international arena was severely undermined. On March 13, 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to a minimum and the fortifications were destroyed. Similar demands were made to Turkey. In addition, Russia was deprived of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, had to return the Kars fortress, and also lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia.
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