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Narrative colloquial metaphor reasoning personification. Epithets, comparisons, metaphors. Purpose - to explore the features of metaphors as figurative and expressive means of the language of the style of fiction

trails
Trope- a word or phrase used in a figurative sense.
Main tropes: metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, litote, epithet, comparison, irony, symbol, allegory, paraphrase.
Epithet- artistic and figurative definition of any object or phenomenon; applied in order to evoke a visual image in the reader person, thing, nature: “Away away, it darkened somehow dull bluish color pine forest. (Gogol); in order to create a certain emotional impression of the depicted or convey the psychological atmosphere, mood: "Blue yes cheerful country ... "(Yesenin); in order to express the author's position:

And you won't wash away all your black blood

poet righteous blood! (Lermontov)
Hyperbola- an exaggeration. used to enhance the emotional impact on the reader, as well as to to highlight certain aspects in the depicted phenomenon:"Bloom pants, the width of the Black Sea" (Gogol); "Tired to death!"; “A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper” (Gogol);

And prevented the nuclei from flying

A mountain of bloody bodies. (Lermontov)
Litotes- a trope, the opposite of hyperbole, a deliberate understatement: A boy with a finger, a peasant with a fingernail, “They paid a miserable penny!”; a drop in the sea; the cat cried; hand over.
Comparison- comparison of objects and phenomena similarities, sometimes obvious:« snake a white snowdrift rushes along the ground ”(Marshak);

Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

Steppe azure, pearl chain

Rush as if like me, exiles,

From the sweet north to the south. (Lermontov);
Sometimes by a very distant and even unexpected, which gives the comparison a special artistic depiction and expressiveness: “And the trees, like riders, gathered in our garden ”(Yesenin).
Metaphor- the transfer of meaning from one word to another according to the similarity of features, a hidden comparison in which there is no comparative turnover. Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech, its emotional expressiveness.

"While freedom we are burning... "(Pushkin), i.e. passionately we desire freedom, we aspire to it; "See eye golden brown whirlpool... "(Yesenin).

Expanded metaphor arises when one metaphor entails new ones related to it in meaning. For example: “The golden grove dissuaded with a cheerful birch tongue” (Yesenin). Metaphor dissuaded"pulls" metaphors golden And birch tongue: leaves turn yellow at first, become golden, and then fall off, die; and since the bearer of the action is a grove, then its language birch, cheerful. Expanded metaphors are a particularly vivid means of figurative speech.

In the garden, a fire of red rowan is burning,

But he cannot warm anyone. (Yesenin)
personification- a kind of metaphor in which natural phenomena, inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of living beings: “Tears from the eyes of drainpipes” (Mayakovsky); "What are you howling about, night wind?" (Tyutchev); “Her nurse lay down next to her in the bedchamber - silence” (Block).
Metonymy- transfer of the name from one subject to another on the basis of their adjacency: read Pushkin, i.e. read Pushkin's works; " All flags they will visit us ”(Pushkin); " Porcelain and bronze on the table" (Pushkin); "I three plates ate "(Krylov); "Mourning Chopin rumbled at sunset ”(Svetlov).

Metonymy must be distinguished from metaphor. In order to transfer a name in a metaphor, the compared objects must necessarily be similar, but with metonymy there is no such similarity, the artist of the word relies only on the adjacency of objects. Metaphor can be easily converted into a comparison using words. like, like, like: fringe of hoarfrost - hoarfrost, like a fringe, pines whisper - pines rustle as if whispering. Metonymy does not allow such a transformation.

Synecdoche a type of metonymy in which the name of the whole is replaced by the name of its part: "And at the door - jackets, overcoats, sheepskin coats"(Mayakovsky); singular is used instead of plural: “This song of last year is now German not a singer" (Tvardovsky); “There is a man groaning from slavery and chains” (Lermontov).
Irony- a type of allegory in which one thing is meant, but the exact opposite is said; smart is called stupid and vice versa; stingy - generous; mockery is hidden under imaginary praise. For example, Gogol in "Dead Souls" calls the prosecutor "the father and benefactor of the whole city", but it immediately turns out that this is the most shameless grabber and bribe taker.
Symbol- a kind of allegory. An artistic symbol is a generalization that, as a rule, does not lend itself to an unambiguous interpretation, because the image-symbol is multi-valued, and each reader understands the meaning of the symbolic image in his own way. The image of a sail into verse. Lermontov can be interpreted as an image of a proud and lonely person, as an image of freedom, as an image of a romantic, as an image of a philosopher seeking truth, etc., and each of these meanings does not contradict Lermontov's image.

Allegory- type of allegory; an abstract idea or concept embodied in a specific image: a cross in Christianity means suffering, a lamb means defenselessness, a dove means innocence, etc. In literature, many allegorical images are taken from folklore, from fairy tales about animals: the wolf is greed, the fox is cunning. For example, in Krylov's fable "The Dragonfly and the Ant", the Dragonfly is an allegory of frivolity, and the Ant is industriousness and foresight.
Paraphrase ( paraphrase) - one of the tropes, which consists in replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive turn of speech, which indicates a characteristic feature of a phenomenon not directly named. For example, the creator of all things is God, the king of birds is an eagle, the city on the Neva is Petersburg, people in white coats are doctors, the petrel of the revolution is M. Gorky, “A sad time! Eye charm! - autumn.
Rhetorical figures
Rhetorical figure is a way of grouping words that enhances the emotional impact of the text.
Antithesis- a figure of contrast, a sharp opposition of objects, phenomena and their properties. In the titles of the works: “War and Peace”, “Fathers and Sons”, “Crime and Punishment”, in the construction of the poem:

Under it, a stream of lighter azure,

Above him is a golden ray of sun, -

And he, rebellious, asks for a storm,

As if there is peace in the storms! (Lermontov)

Anaphora(unity) - an artistic technique that consists in repeating the same sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of several verses.

I love you, Peter's creation,

I love your strict, slender appearance ... (Pushkin)
Epiphora- expressive repetition of words or expressions at the end of two or more relatively independent segments of speech.

When the ocean rises

The waves are roaring around me,

When the clouds break like a storm,

Keep me, my talisman.
In the solitude of foreign countries,

In the bosom of boring peace,

In the anxiety of fiery battle

Keep me, my talisman ... (Pushkin)

Oxymoron(oxymoron) - a combination of opposite words that contradict each other in meaning in one artistic image: “hot snow”, “living corpse”, “mean knight”, “magnificent withering of nature”.
gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression: “Fly! Less flies! Destroyed into a grain of sand! (Gogol); “On the mere assumption of such a case, you should have emitted streams ... what am I saying! rivers, lakes, oceans of tears!” (Dostoevsky).
Parallelism- one of the techniques, which consists in arranging a number of similar elements of speech (lexical parallelism), syntactic constructions (syntactic parallelism), themes (thematic parallelism), collisions (compositional parallelism), images (figurative parallelism), etc., to create a single artistic image.
Good fellows are riding across the field,

Falcons are flying across the sky.

………………………………..

I'm bored without you - I yawn;

With you, I feel sad - I endure ...
You smile - my consolation,

You turn away - I longing ... (Pushkin)

Inversion- unusual word order used to draw the attention of the reader or listener to the most important words in terms of meaning.

"Thunder peals young"," Runs from the mountain the flow is nimble", "AND forest din And upland noise... "(Tyutchev).

Default figure- a sudden interruption of speech in the expectation that the reader will continue it, creatively complete it.

Every house is alien to me, every temple is empty to me,

And everything is the same, and everything is one.

But if on the way - a bush

Gets up, especially - mountain ash ... (Tsvetaeva)
A rhetorical question- the use of an interrogative sentence not in its proper meaning; this sentence is interrogative in structure, but not in purpose of the statement; used in oratory and poetic speech to attract the attention of the interlocutor.

Is it possible to meet a person in Russia who does not know the name of Pushkin?

"Rus! Where are you going?" (Gogol)
Rhetorical exclamations, appeals- oratory techniques that help create a solemn, sublime structure of speech.

Oh, spring without end and without edge -

Endless and endless dream!

I recognize you, life! I accept!

And I greet with the sound of the shield! (Block)
Enum figure concretizes the depicted, makes it visible, tangible and for a long time attracts the reader's attention to it.

The economy of Pulcheria Ivanovna consisted in the incessant unlocking and locking of the pantry, in salting, drying, boiling countless fruits and plants. (Gogol)
Parceling- such a division of a sentence, in which some part of it is separated from the main, basic part in oral speech by a long pause, and in writing by a dot, sometimes an ellipsis or a dash. For example, " There was still fresh grass on the ground. Green like spring. (S. Baruzdin)

“I saw him differently. And at different times. And in different moods. And a poet. And a citizen. And a friend. And always human. (V. Nekrasov)

The Russian language is rich and diverse, with the help of it we ask questions, share impressions, information, convey emotions, talk about what we remember.

Our language allows us to draw, show and create verbal pictures. Literary speech is like painting (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Painting

In verse and prose, bright, picturesque speech that stimulates the imagination, in such a speech figurative language is used.

Figurative means of language- these are ways and techniques of recreating reality, making it possible to make speech vivid and figurative.

Sergei Yesenin has the following lines (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Text of the poem

Epithets make it possible to look at the autumn nature. By means of juxtaposition, the author gives the reader the opportunity to see how the leaves fall, as if flock of butterflies(Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Mapping

as if is an indication of the comparison (Fig. 4). Such a comparison is called comparison.

Rice. 4. Mapping

Comparison - this is a comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object according to a common feature for them. For comparison you need:

• To find something in common between the two phenomena;
• Special word with collation meaning - as if, exactly, as, as if, as if

Consider the line of a poem by Sergei Yesenin (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. A line of a poem

First, the reader is presented with a fire, and then a mountain ash. This is due to equalization, identification by the author of two phenomena. It is based on the similarity of rowan clusters with a fiery red fire. But the words as if, as if, exactly are not used because the author does not compare rowan with a fire, but calls it a fire, this metaphor.

Metaphor - transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.

Metaphor, like comparison, is based on similarity, but difference from comparison in that it happens without the use of special words (as if, as if).

When studying the world, one can see something in common between phenomena, and this is reflected in the language. The visual means of language are based on the similarity of objects and phenomena. Thanks to comparison and metaphor, speech becomes brighter, more expressive, you can see the verbal pictures that poets and writers create.

Sometimes the comparison is created without a special word, in a different way. For example, as in the lines of S. Yesenin's poem "The fields are compressed, the groves are bare ..." (Fig. 6):

Rice. 6. Lines from S. Yesenin's poem "The fields are compressed, the groves are bare ..."

Month compared to foal that is growing before our eyes. But there are no words indicating a comparison; a creative comparison is used (Fig. 7). Word foal stands in the Instrumental case.

Rice. 7. Using the Instrumental for Comparison

Consider the lines of S. Yesenin's poem "The golden grove dissuaded ..." (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. "The golden grove dissuaded ..."

In addition to metaphor (Fig. 9), personification is used, for example, in the phrase dissuaded the grove(Fig. 10).

Rice. 9. Metaphor in a poem

Rice. 10. Personification in a poem

Personification is a kind of metaphor, when an inanimate object is described as living. This is one of the most ancient speech techniques, because our ancestors animated the inanimate in myths, fairy tales and folk poetry.

Exercise

Find comparisons and metaphors in Sergei Yesenin's poem "Birch" (Fig. 11).

Rice. 11. The poem "Birch"

Answer

Snow compared with silver because it looks like him. Used word exactly(Fig. 12).

Rice. 13. Creative comparison

The metaphor is used in the phrase snowflakes are burning(Fig. 14).

Rice. 15. Personification

1. Russian language. 4th grade. Tutorial in 2 parts. Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. M.: Education, 2014.
2. Russian language. 4th grade. Part 1. Kanakina V.P., Goretsky V.G. M.: Education, 2013.
3. Russian language. 4th grade. Tutorial in 2 parts. Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V. 5th ed., revised. M., 2013.
4. Russian language. 4th grade. Tutorial in 2 parts. Ramzaeva T.G. M., 2013.
5. Russian language. 4th grade. Tutorial in 2 parts. Zelenina L.M., Khokhlova T.E. M., 2013.

1. Internet portal "Festival of Pedagogical Ideas "Open Lesson"" ()
2. Internet portal "literatura5.narod.ru" ()

Homework

1. What are the visual aids used for?
2. What is needed for comparison?
3. How is comparison different from metaphor?

AND ) - this is a set of speech elements (special for each style of speech of words and ways of constructing sentences).

A type of speech – it is a way of presenting, building words and sentences in a logical order.

Depending on the content of the text, the following types of speech are distinguished - narrative, description, reasoning.

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Consider the features of each type of speech.

Narration is a story about an event that takes place in a certain period of time. The actions reflected in the event are sequential, logically connected with each other. The narrative can go both from the third person and from the first, and it is characterized by such elements as the plot (the beginning of the event), the development of the action and the denouement (the result of the described event).

Since the narrative is an eventful text, its speech feature is a large number of verbs and a chain development of the action. The text answers the questions “What? Where? When?" - What's happened? where and with whom did it happen? when did it happen?

Narration happens pictorial(emphasis on changing images that “show” the event) and informative(the text not only tells about the event, but also explains it, includes interesting facts).

Narrative text example:

“In the night a strong wind arose and it began to rain. It drummed softly on the roof and ran down the glass, turning the world outside into a blur. Streams of water washed away dust from trees and sidewalks, murmured in gutters, cooled the city, which was hot from the summer heat. And those who did not sleep opened the windows, inhaled the damp coolness and exposed their faces to the ice drops. The city had been waiting for rain for two months, and now, when it came, people silently smiled, blessing the weeping sky…”

An exemplary text - a pictorial narrative - answers the following questions:

1. What's happened? - It's raining in the city
2. where and with whom did it happen? - city dwellers waited for the rain;

1. when did it happen? - it rained in the summer.

Description - this is a verbal image of an object, phenomenon, event. The description lists and reveals the main features of the selected item. The goal is to present the reader of the text with an image that is easy to imagine in paint. The unity of time and place of manifestation of signs is important.

The description text consists of the following parts:

1. general characteristics of the object, general impression;
2. signs, details;
3. general assessment of the subject.

For example, the description can be portrait, landscape; anything can be the object of writing - a person, and his emotional state, and an animal, and a plant, and a place (a city, a hotel house, a park, a village), and the weather. Speech feature - the predominance of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, a minimum of action and static text.

Descriptive text answers the questions “what? which?" (What object is described? How does it look? What are its qualities and properties?).

Description text example:

“It was raining for the third day. Gray, small and harmful. Unpredictable, like a low gray sky. Endless. Endless. He restlessly knocked on the windows and rustled softly on the roof. Gloomy and careless. Annoying. Bored.”

Sample text answers descriptive questions:

1. what subject is being described? - rain;

1. what is the subject? - gray, small, harmful, unpredictable, endless, etc.

reasoning - this is the development and confirmation of thought, the explanation of the phenomenon (properties of the object) and the expression of one's own opinion. Reasoning answers the questions “why? For what?".

The reasoning consists of the following parts:

1. thesis - a thought that needs to be proved;
2. substantiation of the thesis, supporting argumentation with examples, evidence;
3. summary - results, conclusions.

The text of reasoning is aimed at convincing, explaining, proving. Reasoning is characterized by the active use of rhetorical questions and introductory words - bundles: firstly ... secondly ... thirdly ... therefore (thus, respectively); meanwhile, because, so.

Reasoning is as follows:

1. reasoning-proof (why so, and not otherwise? What follows from this?);
2. reasoning-explanation (what is it? where did it come from? why is the subject like this?);
3. reasoning-thinking (how to be? To be or not to be? What to do?).

Reasoning text example:

“So, the night will pass, and the rain will stop, the thunder will rumble. So, what is next? Again - the exhausting heat of a stuffy summer? Again - hot asphalt? Again - a city choking in the dust? Or will the weather take pity on tired city dwellers and give at least a week of coolness? Since the forecasts of the weather forecasters are blurry and foggy, we can only wait and watch.”

An exemplary text - reasoning-thinking - answers the following questions:

1. Why? - because the rain will end and the heat that bothers everyone will return;

1. For what? - to imagine what to expect from capricious nature.

Types of speech are ways of presentation that solve the following author's tasks:

• narrative - dynamically reflects reality, tells about its events; narration is a clip, a movie, a change of shots;
• description - depicts a static reality, studies the object of interest from all sides; the description is a photograph, a frozen frame;
• reasoning - looks for causal relationships between events and phenomena, expresses the opinion of the author, "because ..."; this is a diagram with blocks of theses and evidence and arrows - logical questions.

And finally, a reminder: do not confuse functional speech styles with types of speech. 😉 After all, for example, a newspaper article of a journalistic style of speech can be both narrative (reporting from the scene), and descriptive (a note about a missing person; an advertisement for a new building), and reasoning (an analytical article).

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Means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. The concept of a path. Types of tropes: epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.

A trope is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. Tropes are widely used in literary works, oratory and in everyday speech.

The main types of tropes: Epithet, metaphor, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.

An epithet is a definition attached to a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (second life).

An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. It is used in both poetry and prose.

Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech (mother-Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature, without them it is impossible to imagine a single work of art.

Under us with a cast-iron roar
Bridges instantly rattle. (A. A. Fet)

Metaphor (“transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a trope, a word or an expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

An object within a specific category,

The process by which this object performs a function,

Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).

Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word.

In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between diaphora (sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (usual, erased metaphor).

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: "The hunger for books continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying."

A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: "I lost my temper and got on the bus."

Vanya is a real loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M.A. Bulgakov);

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withering gold embraced,
I won't be young anymore. (S. A. Yesenin)

Comparison

Comparison is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to reveal new, important properties that are advantageous for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.

In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (means of comparison), and their common feature (base of comparison, comparative feature). One of the distinguishing features of comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.

Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.

Comparison types

There are different types of comparisons:

Comparisons in the form of a comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions as if, as if, exactly: "A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as hell." Non-union comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: "My house is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the help of a noun in the instrumental case: "he walks like a gogol." Negative comparisons: "An attempt is not torture."

Crazy years, the extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin);

Under it is a stream lighter than azure (M.Yu. Lermontov);

Metonymy

Metonymy (“renaming”, “name”) is a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is indicated replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.

Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on the replacement of words “by adjacency” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, class representative instead of the whole class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa) and metaphor - “by similarity”. Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.

Example: "All flags will visit us", where "flags" means "countries" (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substituting members, and, on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from the action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

In early Soviet literature, an attempt to maximize the use of metonymy both theoretically and practically was made by the constructivists, who put forward the principle of the so-called "locality" (the motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, their limitation by real dependence on the theme). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the promotion of metonymy at the expense of metaphor is illegitimate: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena that do not exclude, but complement each other.

Types of metonymy:

General language, general poetic, general newspaper, individual-author's, individual-creative.

Examples:

"Hand of Moscow"

"I ate three plates"

“Black tailcoats flashed and rushed apart and in heaps here and there”

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a trope, a kind of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Usually used in synecdoche:

Singular instead of plural: "Everything is sleeping - both man, and beast, and bird." (Gogol);

Plural instead of singular: "We all look at Napoleons." (Pushkin);

A part instead of a whole: “Have you any need? “In the roof for my family.” (Herzen);

The generic name instead of the specific one: "Well, sit down, luminary." (Mayakovsky) (instead of: the sun);

The specific name instead of the generic one: "Better than all, take care of the penny." (Gogol) (instead of: money).

Hyperbola

Hyperbole (“transition; excess, excess; exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of explicit and intentional exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said. For example: "I've said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors (“the waves rose like mountains”). The character or situation depicted can also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical, oratorical style, as a means of pathetic uplift, as well as the romantic style, where pathos is in contact with irony.

Examples:

Phraseological units and winged expressions

"sea of ​​tears"

"fast as lightning", "lightning fast"

"as numerous as the sand on the seashore"

“We haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”

Prose

Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were blown up, the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich

A million Cossack hats suddenly poured into the square. …

... for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.

N. Gogol. Taras Bulba

Poems, songs

About our meeting - what is there to say,
I waited for her, as they wait for natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of detrimental consequences!

Litotes

Litota, litotes (simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.

Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, so it is called inverse hyperbole in another way. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two heterogeneous phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

For example: “A horse the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.

Many litots are phraseological units or idioms: “turtle pace”, “at hand”, “the cat cried money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.

There is a litote in folk and literary tales: “Boy-with-a-finger”, “man-with-nail”, “girl-inch”.

Litota (otherwise: antenantiosis or antenantiosis) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing the assertion of some feature with an expression that denies the opposite feature. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don’t mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “low”, “famous” - “notorious”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe", "good" - "not bad". In this meaning, litote is one of the forms of euphemism (a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate.).

... and love for his wife will grow cold in him

Irony

Irony (“mockery”) is a trope, while the meaning, from the point of view of due, is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit `meaning`. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems. Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart-smart ...” Here, positive statements have a negative connotation.

Forms of irony

Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the described phenomenon.

Anti-irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows the object of anti-irony to be underestimated.

Self-irony is irony directed at one's own person. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements can imply a reverse (positive) connotation. Example: "Where can we, fools, drink tea."

Socratic irony is a form of self-irony constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as it were, independently comes to natural logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of the ironic statement, following the premises of the “not knowing the truth” subject.

An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows you not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith, and not to take various "generally recognized values" too seriously.

"Did you all sing? This is the case:
So come on, dance!" (I. A. Krylov)

Allegory

Allegory (narrative) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and morality. It arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore and developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects, which acquire a figurative meaning.

Example: justice - Themis (a woman with scales).

The nightingale is sad at the defeated rose,
hysterically sings over the flower.
But the garden scarecrow is shedding tears,
who secretly loved the rose.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov. two loves

Allegory is the artistic isolation of extraneous concepts, with the help of specific representations. Religion, love, soul, justice, strife, glory, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc. are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, the seasons - by means of the flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by means of weights and blindfolds, death through clepsydra and scythes.

That with a quivering relish,
then a friend in the arms of the soul,
like a lily with a poppy,
kisses with the heart of the soul.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov. Kissing pun.

personification

Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) is a trope, the attribution of properties and signs of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features.

Examples:

And woe, woe, grief!
And grief girded itself with a bast,
Feet are entangled with bast.

folk song

The personification was widespread in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folklore lyrics to poetic works of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the work of the Oberiuts.

paraphrase

In stylistics and poetics, periphrase (paraphrase, periphrase; “descriptive expression”, “allegory”, “statement”) is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.

Paraphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, "night luminary" = "moon" or "I love you, Peter's creation!" = "I love you, St. Petersburg!").

In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine". There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls”) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).

Often the paraphrase is used to descriptively express "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, the paraphrase is also a euphemism. // Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: in 2 volumes - M.; L .: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925. T. 2. P-Ya. - Stb. 984-986.

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7. Toporov V.N. trails// Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.