What ended the Livonian war briefly. Livonian war: the fall of the order
Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
higher professional education
"Khakassian State University named after N.F. Katanov"
Institute of History and Law
Department of Russian History
Livonian War: causes, course, results.
(Course work)
Performed:
1st year student, group Iz-071
Bazarova Rano Makhmudovna
Scientific adviser:
Ph.D., Art. teacher
Drozdov Alexey Ilyich
Abakan 2008
INTRODUCTION
1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONS WAR
2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONS WAR
2.1 First stage
2.2. Second phase
2.3 Third stage
2.4 Outcomes of the war
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
Relevance of the topic. The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, the results of the clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the diversity of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other foreign policy actions of Russia in the second half of the 16th century. It is possible with good reason to find problems similar to those of the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the foreign policy of modern Russia. Having thrown off the Horde yoke, the young state needed an urgent reorientation to the West, the restoration of interrupted contacts. Soviet Union was also in long-term isolation from most of the Western world for many reasons, so the first task of the new, democratic government was to actively search for partners and raise the country's international prestige. It is the search for the right ways to establish contacts that determines the relevance of the topic under study in social reality.
Object of study. Russia's foreign policy in the 16th century.
Subject of study. Livonian war causes, course, results.
Goal of the work. To characterize the influence of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. on international position Russia; as well as on the domestic politics and economy of the country.
1. Determine the causes of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583.
2. Identify the main stages in the course of hostilities with a description of each of them. Pay attention to the causes of changes in the nature of war.
3. Summing up the results of the Livonian War, based on the terms of the peace treaty.
Chronological framework. It began in 1558 and ended in 1583.
Geographic limits. The territory of the Baltic States, the western and northwestern regions of Russia.
Sources.
“The Capture of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible” depicts the situation in Polotsk during its siege by Russian troops, the panic of the Lithuanian governors who were forced to surrender the city. The source provides interesting information about the superiority of Russian artillery, about the transition to the side of the Russian Polotsk peasants. The chronicler shows the king careful owner his "fatherland" - Polotsk: after the capture of the city, Ivan the Terrible conducts a census.
"Correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky" is polemical in nature. In it, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of striving for autocracy and merciless terror against talented commanders. The fugitive sees this as one of the reasons for military failures, in particular, the surrender of Polotsk. In response letters, Grozny, despite the rude epithets addressed to the former governor, justifies himself to him in his actions. In the first message, for example, Ivan IV substantiates territorial claims to the Livonian land as his "patrimony".
One of the events of the Livonian War is reflected in the "Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov": the defense of Pskov. The author very picturesquely describes the "unquenchable fierce beast" of King Stephen, his inexorable "lawless" desire to take Pskov and, in contrast, the decision of all participants in the defense to stand "strongly". In sufficient detail, the source shows the location of the Lithuanian troops, the course of the first attack, the firepower of both sides.
A prominent representative of the psychological and economic school, V. O. Klyuchevsky, saw the defining beginning of a stormy history XVI century in the princes' claim to absolute power. Briefly, but clearly considering the foreign policy tasks of the Russian state, he noted that the basis of the complex diplomatic relations that began with the countries of Western Europe was the “national idea” of further struggle for the unification of all ancient Russian lands.
In "Russian history in the descriptions of its main figures" by N. I. Kostomarov, published within fifteen years from 1873, the character of each figure is presented in accordance with the historical situation. He gave great importance subjective factor in history. He sees the reason for the conflict between Ivan the Terrible and Sigismund in personal hostility due to unsuccessful matchmaking. According to Kostomarov, the choice of means to achieve the well-being of the human race was made by Ivan the Terrible unsuccessfully, and for this reason he does not fit the concept of a "great man."
The monograph of V. D. Korolyuk, the only one for the Soviet period, is completely devoted to the Livonian War. It accurately highlights the fundamentally different vision of Ivan the Terrible and the Chosen Rada of the foreign policy tasks facing Russia at that time. The author describes in detail the international situation favorable for the Russian state before the start of the war, the course of hostilities itself is poorly covered.
According to A.A. Zimin and A.L. Khoroshkevich war acted as a continuation of domestic policy by other means for both opposing sides. The outcome of the conflict for Russia was predetermined for a number of objective reasons: the complete ruin of the country, the oprichnina terror that destroyed the best military personnel, the presence of fronts both in the West and in the East. The monograph emphasizes the idea of the national liberation struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Livonian feudal lords.
R. G. Skrynnikov in his "History of the Russian" paid very little attention to the Livonian War, believing that Ivan the Terrible did not have to resort to military action to gain access to the Baltic. The Livonian War is consecrated in an overview, much more attention is paid to the internal policy of the Russian state.
Among the kaleidoscope of views on the history of the Livonian War, two main directions can be distinguished, based on the expediency of choosing the country's foreign policy in specific historical conditions. Representatives of the former believe that among many foreign policy tasks, the solution of the Baltic issue was a top priority. These include historians of the Soviet school: V. D. Korolyuk, A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich. Characteristic for them is the use of a socio-economic approach to history. Another group of researchers considers the choice in favor of war with Livonia to be erroneous. The first to note this was the 19th-century historian N.I. Kostomarov. R. G. Skrynnikov, Professor of St. Petersburg University, in his new book "Russian History of the 9th - 17th centuries" believes that the Russian government could peacefully establish itself on the Baltic coast, but failed to cope with the task and brought to the fore the military seizure of the harbors of Livonia. An intermediate position was taken by the pre-revolutionary historian E.F. Shmurlo, who considered the programs "Crimea" and "Livonia" equally urgent. The choice of one of them at the time described, in his opinion, was influenced by secondary factors.
1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONS WAR
Main directions foreign policy The Russian centralized state emerged as early as the second half of the 15th century, under Grand Duke Ivan III. They boiled down, firstly, to the struggle on the eastern and southern borders with the Tatar khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde; secondly, to the fight against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the union of Poland connected with it for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands captured by Lithuanian and partly Polish feudal lords; thirdly, to the fight on the northwestern borders with the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords and the Livonian Order, who sought to isolate Russian state from the necessary natural and convenient access to the Baltic Sea.
For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a habitual and constant matter. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century did the long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorb the forces of the Tatar world. A protege of Moscow established itself in Kazan. The union between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the attack of the Crimean Khan on Moscow in 1521, the citizens of Kazan broke off vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had developed to the east and south of the Russian state. A force grew in her face that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai Horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus also increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the king. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east.
The foreign policy question that has arisen seems natural: should we continue the onslaught on the Tatar world, should we finish the struggle, the roots of which go back to the distant past? Is the attempt to conquer the Crimea timely? Two different programs clashed in Russian foreign policy. The formation of these programs was determined by international circumstances and the alignment of political forces within the country. The elected council considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. The vast expanses of the "wild field" separated the then Russia from the Crimea. Moscow did not yet have strongholds on this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to the difficulties of a military nature, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with the Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and the German Empire. The latter was under the constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But at the moment, the position of Poland and Lithuania, which saw in the Ottoman Empire a serious counterbalance to Russia, was much more important. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania against Turkish aggression was accompanied by serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. More realistic was the program of struggle for the Baltic states. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his council, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order, to try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same flaw - impracticability at the moment, but at the same time, both were equally urgent and timely. Nevertheless, before the start of hostilities in the western direction, Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the revolt of the Kazan murzas in 1558 and thus forcing the Astrakhan khanates to submit.
Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first serious skirmish dates back to the 12th century. At the same time, the German knights begin to implement their political doctrine - "March to the East", a crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples in order to convert them to Catholicism. In 1201, Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword-bearers was founded specifically for operations in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from the Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the sword-bearers and the Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240-1242. In general, the peace with the order in 1242 did not save from hostilities with the crusaders and the Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, at the end of the 13th century captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.
Sweden, having its own interests in the Baltics, was able to intervene in Livonian affairs. The Russian-Swedish war lasted from 1554 to 1557. The attempts of Gustav I Vasa to involve Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the Livonian Order in the war against Russia did not produce results, although initially it was the order that pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share the waiting position of their father. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, the hands of Sweden were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations.
The territorial dispute with Lithuania had a long history. Before the death of Prince Gediminas (1316 - 1341), Russian regions accounted for more than two thirds of the entire territory of the Lithuanian state. Over the next hundred years, under Olgerd and Vitovt, the Chernigov-Seversk region (the cities of Chernigov, Novgorod - Seversk, Bryansk), the Kiev region, Podolia (the northern part of the lands between the Bug and the Dniester), Volyn, Smolensk region were conquered.
Under Basil III, Russia claimed the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the sister of the Russian sovereign. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the victory of the latter, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw Vasily as a personal enemy who claimed the Lithuanian throne. This aggravated the already strained Russo-Lithuanian relations. In such an environment, the Lithuanian Seimas in February 1507 decided to start a war with the eastern neighbor. The Lithuanian ambassadors, in an ultimatum form, raised the question of the return of the lands that had passed to Russia during the last wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the process of negotiations, and in March 1507 hostilities began. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, an uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another pretender to the throne of Lithuania, begins. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failure was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to start peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, "Perpetual Peace" was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transition to Russia of the Seversk cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. But despite some success, the government Basil III did not consider the war of 1508 a solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered the "eternal peace" as a respite, preparing to continue the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversk lands either.
But under the specific conditions of the middle of the 16th century, a direct clash with Poland and Lithuania was not envisaged. The Russian state could not count on the help of reliable and strong allies. Moreover, the war with Poland and Lithuania would have to be waged in difficult conditions of hostile actions both from the Crimea and Turkey, and from Sweden and even the Livonian Order. Therefore, this variant of foreign policy was not considered by the Russian government at the moment.
One of the important factors that determined the choice of the king in favor of the struggle for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. The main military force in the country was the knightly Order of the Sword. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinated to the supreme authority of the master. The archbishop of Riga (another part of Riga was subordinate to him), and the bishops of Derpt, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. The knights of the order owned estates on fief law. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Derpt, Narva, and others, were in fact an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. There were constant clashes between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only organ of the central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four estates: the Order, the clergy, chivalry and cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually had no real significance in the absence of a single executive power. Close ties have existed for a long time between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian population was ready to support the military operations of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.
The Russian state itself by the end of the 50s. XVI century was a powerful military power in Europe. As a result of the reforms, Russia has become much stronger and has achieved a much higher degree of political centralization than ever before. Permanent infantry units were created - the archery army. The Russian artillery also achieved great success. Russia had not only large enterprises for the manufacture of cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder, but also well-trained numerous personnel. In addition, the introduction of an important technical improvement - the gun carriage - made it possible to use artillery in field conditions. Russian military engineers have developed a new effective system engineering support for the attack of fortresses.
Russia in the 16th century became the largest trading power at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, whose craft was still suffocated by the lack of non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the receipt of metals is trade with the West through the overhead mediation of Livonian cities. Livonian cities - Derpt, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. The main source of their income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, the attempts of the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. As early as the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, Russian Ivangorod was founded opposite Narva. A little later, the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not but frighten the trading elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. Livonia, in response, was ready to organize an economic blockade, which was also supported by Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communication with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the 1557 peace treaty with Sweden. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular, Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hindered by the contradictions between Sweden and Russia in border issues.
Trade on the White Sea, although of great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible for most of the year; the way there was difficult and distant; contacts were unilateral in nature with the complete monopoly of the British, etc. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unhindered trade relations with the countries of Europe, set the task of gaining access to the Baltic.
The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Muscovite state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Rus' was in close contact with many foreign states. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, marriage unions connected the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. One of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke for Rus' was the forcible reorientation of foreign policy towards the East. The war for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track, to restore the interrupted connection with the West.
International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to secure for itself an independent position in the sphere of international relations, or to serve as a mere object of interests of other powers. In many ways, the future of the Muscovite state depended on the outcome of the struggle for the Baltic states: whether it would enter the family of European peoples, having the opportunity to independently communicate with the states of Western Europe.
In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV reasonably states: "... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land ...". Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.
The social factor should not be discounted either. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the townspeople. The nobility counted on land distribution in the Baltics, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the "wild field", the impossibility of establishing a strong central authority there, at least at first, the landowners - the boyars had the opportunity to occupy the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, he took into account, first of all, the interests of the nobility and merchant classes.
With the complex alignment of forces in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment for the start of hostilities against Livonia. It came to Russia at the end of 1557 - the beginning of 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russo-Swedish War temporarily neutralized this enough strong opponent who had the status maritime power. Denmark at this point was distracted by the aggravation of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not bound by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved issues of the internal order: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expired truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. And finally, as a result of military operations against the Crimean Tatars, it was possible for some time not to be afraid of the southern borders. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.
During this period, relations with Livonia were rather strained. In 1554, Alexey Adashev and the clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy that they did not want to extend the truce due to:
Non-payment by the Bishop of Dorpat of tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;
The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the ruin of Russian settlements in the Baltic.
The establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden contributed to the temporary settlement of Russian-Livonian relations. After Russia lifted the ban on the export of wax and lard, Livonia was presented with the terms of a new truce:
Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;
Guaranteed payment of tribute by the Bishop of Derpt;
Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;
Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;
Providing conditions for free trade.
Livonia was not going to fulfill its obligations under a truce concluded for fifteen years.
Thus, the choice was made in favor of resolving the Baltic issue. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: economic, territorial, social and ideological. Russia, being in favorable conditions international situation, had a high military potential and was ready for a military conflict with Livonia for the possession of the Baltic states.
2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONS WAR
2.1 First phase of the war
The course of the Livonian War can be divided into three stages, each of which differs somewhat in the composition of the participants, the duration and nature of the actions. The reason for the start of hostilities in the Baltic States was the fact that the Bishop of Derpt did not pay the "Yurievsky tribute" from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes. In addition to the oppression of the Russian people in the Baltic states, the Livonian authorities violated another clause of the agreement with Russia - in September 1554, they entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, directed against Moscow. The Russian government sent Master Furstenberg a letter declaring war. However, hostilities did not begin then - Ivan IV hoped to achieve his goals through diplomacy until June 1558.
The main goal of the first campaign of the Russian army in Livonia, which took place in the winter of 1558, was the desire to achieve a voluntary concession of Narva from the Order. Hostilities began in January 1558. Moscow cavalry rati led by the Kasimov "king" Shah - Ali and Prince. M.V. Glinsky entered the land of the Order. During the winter campaign, Russian and Tatar detachments, numbering 40 thousand soldiers, reached the Baltic coast, devastating the environs of many Livonian cities and castles. During this campaign, Russian military leaders twice, on the direct instructions of the tsar, sent letters to the master about the resumption of peace negotiations. The Livonian authorities made concessions: they began collecting tribute, agreed with the Russian side on a temporary cessation of hostilities and sent their representatives to Moscow, who, during the most difficult negotiations, were forced to agree to the transfer of Narva to Russia.
But the established truce was soon violated by supporters of the military party of the Order. March 1558. Narva Vogt E. von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress Ivangorod, provoking a new invasion of Moscow troops into Livonia.
During the second trip to the Baltic in May-July 1558. Russians captured more than 20 fortresses, including the most important ones - Narva, Neishloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Derpt. During the summer campaign in 1558. the troops of the Moscow tsar came close to Revel and Riga, devastating their surroundings.
The decisive battle of the winter campaign of 1558/1559. happened near the city of Tiersen, where on January 17, 1559. met a large Livonian detachment of the Riga house prefect F. Felkerzam and the Russian Advanced Regiment, led by the voivode Prince. V.S. Silver. In a stubborn battle, the Germans were defeated.
March 1559. the Russian government, considering its position sufficiently strong, through the mediation of the Danes, agreed to conclude a six-month truce with master V. Furstenberg - from May to November 1559.
Having received in 1559. an urgently needed respite, the order authorities, headed by G. Ketler, who became on September 17, 1559. new master, enlisted the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden. Ketler in October 1559 broke the truce with Moscow. The new master managed to defeat the detachment of the governor Z.I. near Dorpat with an unexpected attack. Ochina-Pleshcheeva. Nevertheless, the head of the Yurievsky (Derpt) garrison, voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. For ten days, the Livonians unsuccessfully stormed Yuryev and, not venturing into a winter siege, were forced to retreat. The siege of Lais in November 1559 turned out to be just as unsuccessful. Ketler, having lost 400 soldiers in the battles for the fortress, retreated to Wenden.
The result of a new big offensive of the Russian troops was the capture of one of the strongest fortresses of Livonia - Fellin - on August 30, 1560. A few months before this, Russian troops led by governors Prince I.F. Mstislavsky and Prince P.I. Shuisky occupied Marienburg.
Thus, the first stage of the Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1561. It was conceived as a punitive demonstration campaign with the clear military superiority of the Russian army. Livonia stubbornly resisted, counting on the help of Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Hostile relations between these states allowed Russia for the time being to conduct successful military operations in the Baltics.
2.2 Second phase of the war
Despite the defeat of the Order, the government of Ivan the Terrible faced a difficult choice: either to cede the Baltic states in response to the ultimatum statement of Poland and Lithuania (1560), or to prepare for war against the anti-Russian coalition (Sweden, Denmark, the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Holy Roman Empire) . Ivan the Terrible made an attempt to avoid conflict by dynastic marriage with a relative of the Polish king. The matchmaking proved unsuccessful, as Sigismund demanded territorial concessions as a marriage condition.
The successes of the Russian weapons accelerated the disintegration of the Cavalier Teutonic Order in Livonia. In June 1561, the cities of Northern Estonia, including Revel, swore allegiance to the Swedish king Eric XIV. The Livonian state ceased to exist, transferring its cities, castles and lands under the joint rule of Lithuania and Poland. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II August. In December, Lithuanian troops were sent to Livonia, occupying more than ten cities. The Muscovite side initially managed to reach an agreement with the Kingdom of Sweden (August 20, 1561 in Novgorod, a truce was concluded with representatives of the Swedish king Eric XIV for 20 years).
In March 1562, immediately after the end of the truce with Lithuania, the Moscow governors devastated the environs of the Lithuanian Orsha, Mogilev and Vitebsk. In Livonia, the troops of I.F. Mstislavsky and P.I. Shuisky captured the cities of Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev).
In the spring of 1562 Lithuanian troops carried out retaliatory raids on Smolensk places and Pskov volosts, after which the fighting unfolded along the entire line of the Russian-Lithuanian border. Summer - autumn 1562. Lithuanian troops continued to attack border fortresses in Russia (Nevel) and on the territory of Livonia (Tarvast).
December 1562. Ivan IV himself set out on a campaign against Lithuania with an 80,000-strong army. Russian regiments in January 1563 moved to Polotsk, which had a favorable strategic position at the junction of Russian, Lithuanian and Livonian borders. The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. Thanks to the actions of Russian artillery, the well-fortified city was taken on February 15. An attempt to make peace with Lithuania (with the condition of fixing progress) failed.
Soon after the victory near Polotsk, the Russian rati began to suffer defeats. The Lithuanians, alarmed by the loss of the city, sent all available forces to the Moscow border under the command of Hetman Nikolai Radziwill.
Battle on the river Ulle January 26, 1564 turned into a heavy defeat for the Russian army due to the betrayal of Prince. A.M. Kurbsky, an agent of Lithuanian intelligence, who transmitted information about the movement of Russian regiments.
1564 brought not only the flight of Kurbsky to Lithuania, but also another defeat from the Lithuanians - near Orsha. The war took on a protracted character. In the autumn of 1564 the government of Ivan the Terrible, not having the strength to fight several states at once, concluded a seven-year peace with Sweden at the cost of recognizing Swedish authority over Reval, Pernov (Pärnu) and other cities of Northern Estonia.
In the autumn of 1564 the Lithuanian army, in which Kurbsky was also located, launched a successful counteroffensive. In agreement with Sigismund II, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray also approached Ryazan, whose raid led the king into a panic.
In 1568, the enemy of Ivan IV, Johan III, sat on the Swedish throne. In addition, the rude actions of Russian diplomats contributed to the further deterioration of relations with Sweden. In 1569 Lithuania and Poland, according to the Union of Lublin, merged into a single state - the Commonwealth. In 1570, the Russian tsar accepted the peace conditions of the Polish king in order to be able to force the Swedes out of the Baltic states by force of arms. On the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow, a vassal kingdom was created, the ruler of which was the Danish prince Magnus of Holstein. The siege of the Russian-Livonian troops of the Swedish Reval for almost 30 weeks ended in complete failure. In 1572, a struggle began in Europe for the Polish throne, which had become empty after the death of Sigismund. The Commonwealth was on the verge of civil war and foreign invasion. Russia hastened to turn the tide of the war in its favor. In 1577, the victorious campaign of the Russian army to the Baltic took place, as a result of which Russia controlled the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, excluding Riga and Revel.
In the second stage, the war took on a protracted character. The struggle was fought on several fronts with varying success. The situation was complicated by unsuccessful diplomatic actions and mediocrity of the military command. Failures in foreign policy led to a sharp change in domestic policy. Years of war led to an economic crisis. The military successes achieved by 1577 subsequently failed to be consolidated.
2.3 Third phase of the war
A decisive turning point in the course of hostilities is associated with the appearance at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian state of an experienced military leader Stefan Batory, whose candidacy for the Polish throne was nominated and supported by Turkey and the Crimea. He deliberately did not interfere with the offensive of the Russian troops, delaying peace negotiations with Moscow. His first concern was the solution of internal problems: the suppression of the rebellious gentry and the restoration of the combat capability of the army.
In 1578 the counteroffensive of the Polish and Swedish troops began. The stubborn struggle for the castle of Verdun ended on October 21, 1578. heavy defeat of the Russian infantry. Russia lost one city after another. Duke Magnus went over to the side of Bathory. The difficult situation forced the Russian tsar to seek peace with Batory in order to gather strength and inflict in the summer of 1579. decisive blow to the Swedes.
But Batory did not want peace on Russian terms and was preparing to continue the war with Russia. In this, he was fully supported by the allies: the Swedish king Johan III, the Saxon Elector August and the Brandenburg Elector Johann George.
Batory determined the direction of the main blow not to the devastated Livonia, where there were still many Russian troops, but to the territory of Russia in the region of Polotsk, a key point on the Dvina.
Alarmed by the invasion of the Polish army into the Moscow state, Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen the Polotsk garrison and its combat capabilities. However, these actions are clearly too late. The siege of Polotsk by the Poles lasted three weeks. The defenders of the city offered fierce resistance, but, suffering huge losses and having lost faith in the help of the Russian troops, they surrendered on September 1 to Batory.
After the capture of Polotsk, the Lithuanian army invaded the Smolensk and Seversk lands. After this success, Batory returned to the capital of Lithuania - Vilna, from where he sent a message to Ivan the Terrible with a message about the victories and demanding the cession of Livonia and recognition of the rights of the Commonwealth to Courland.
Preparing to resume hostilities next year, Stefan Batory again intended to attack not in Livonia, but in a northeasterly direction. This time he was going to capture the fortress of Velikiye Luki, which covered the Novgorod lands from the south. And again, Batory's plans turned out to be unsolved by the Moscow command. Russian regiments were stretched along the entire front line from the Livonian city of Kokenhausen to Smolensk. This mistake had the most negative consequences.
At the end of August 1580. the army of the Polish king (48-50 thousand people, of which 21 thousand were infantry) crossed the Russian border. The royal army, which set out on a campaign, had first-class artillery, which included 30 siege guns.
The siege of Velikiye Luki began on August 26, 1580. Alarmed by the successes of the enemy, Ivan the Terrible offered him peace, agreeing to very significant territorial concessions, primarily the transfer of 24 cities in Livonia to the Commonwealth. The tsar also expressed his readiness to renounce claims to Polotsk and Polotsk land. However, Batory considered Moscow's proposals insufficient, demanding all of Livonia. Apparently, even then, in his entourage, plans were being developed to conquer the Seversk land, Smolensk, Veliky Novgorod and Pskov. The interrupted siege of the city continued, and on September 5, the defenders of the dilapidated fortress agreed to surrender.
Shortly after this victory, the Poles took the fortresses of Narva (September 29), Ozerische (October 12) and Zavolochye (October 23).
In the battle near Toropets, the army of Prince. V.D. Khilkov, and this deprived the protection of the southern borders of the Novgorod land.
The Polish-Lithuanian detachments continued hostilities in this area even in the winter. The Swedes, having taken with great difficulty the fortress of Padis, put an end to the Russian presence in Western Estonia.
The main target of Batory's third strike was Pskov. June 20, 1581 The Polish army set out on a campaign. This time, the king failed to hide his preparation and the direction of the main attack. The Russian governors succeeded, ahead of the enemy, in delivering a warning strike in the area of Dubrovna, Orsha, Shklov and Mogilev. This attack not only slowed down the progress of the Polish army, but also weakened its strength. Thanks to the temporary stop of the Polish offensive, the Russian command managed to transfer additional military contingents from the Livonian castles to Pskov and strengthen the fortifications. Polish-Lithuanian troops in the autumn and winter of 1581. stormed the city 31 times. All attacks were beaten off. Bathory abandoned the winter siege and on December 1, 1581. left camp. The time has come for negotiations. The Russian tsar understood that the war was lost, while for the Poles, further presence on the territory of Russia was fraught with heavy losses.
The third stage is more defensive actions of Russia. Many factors played a role in this: the military talent of Stefan Batory, the inept actions of Russian diplomats and generals, a significant drop in Russia's military potential. For 5 years, Ivan the Terrible has repeatedly offered peace to opponents on conditions unfavorable for Russia.
2.4 Summary
Russia needed peace. In the Baltic States, the Swedes went on the offensive, the Crimeans resumed raids on the southern borders. Pope Gregory XIII, who dreamed of expanding the influence of the papal curia in Eastern Europe, acted as an intermediary in the peace negotiations. Negotiations began in mid-December 1581 in the small village of Yama Zapolsky. The congresses of ambassadors ended on January 5, 1582, with the conclusion of a ten-year truce. The Polish commissars agreed to cede to the Muscovy the Velikie Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzhev Pustaya and the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, and Velya, previously captured by their army. It was specifically stipulated that the Russian fortresses, besieged at that time by the troops of the Polish king, were subject to return if they were captured by the enemy: Vrev, Vladimirets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobyle settlement and Sebezh. The foresight of the Russian ambassadors turned out to be useful: according to this clause, the Poles returned the captured city of Sebezh. For its part, the Muscovite state agreed to the transfer of the Commonwealth of all cities and castles in Livonia occupied by Russian troops, which turned out to be 41. Yam - the Zapolsky truce did not apply to Sweden.
So, Stefan Batory secured most of the Baltic states for his kingdom. He also managed to achieve recognition of his rights to the Polotsk land, to the cities of Velizh, Usvyat, Ozerishche, Sokol. In June 1582, the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky truce were confirmed at the negotiations in Moscow, which were conducted by the Polish ambassadors Janusz Zbarazhsky, Nikolai Tavlosh and clerk Mikhail Garaburda. The parties agreed to consider the day of St. Peter and Paul (29 June) 1592
On February 4, 1582, a month after the conclusion of the Yam-Zapolsky truce, the last Polish detachments left Pskov.
However, the Yam-Zapolsky and "Peter and Paul" peace agreements of 1582 did not end the Livonian War. The Swedish army under the command of Field Marshal P. Delagardie dealt the final blow to Russian plans to preserve part of the cities conquered in the Baltic states. In September 1581, his troops captured Narva and Ivangorod, the defense of which was led by the governor A. Belsky, who surrendered the fortress to the enemy.
Having entrenched themselves in Ivangorod, the Swedes soon went on the offensive again and soon occupied the border Yam (September 28, 1581) and Koporye (October 14) with their counties. On August 10, 1583, Russia concluded a truce with Sweden in Plus, according to which the Russian cities and Northern Estonia occupied by them remained behind the Swedes.
The Livonian War, which lasted almost 25 years, ended. Russia suffered a heavy defeat, losing not only all its conquests in the Baltic states, but also part of its own territories with three major border fortress cities. On the coast of the Gulf of Finland, only a small fortress Oreshek on the river remained behind the Moscow state. Neva and narrow corridor along this waterway from the river. Arrows to the river. Sisters, with a total length of 31.5 km.
Three stages in the course of hostilities are of a different nature: the first - local war with a clear advantage of the Russians; at the second stage, the war took on a protracted character, an anti-Russian coalition was formed, battles were taking place on the border of the Russian state; the third stage is characterized mainly by the defensive actions of Russia on its territory, Russian soldiers demonstrate unprecedented heroism in the defense of cities. the main objective war - the solution of the Baltic issue - has not been achieved.
CONCLUSION
Thus, based on the above material, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. It is rather difficult to say whether the choice in favor of the war with Livonia was timely and correct. The necessity of solving this problem for the Russian state seems unambiguous. The importance of unhindered trade with the West dictated the need for the Livonian War in the first place. Russia under Ivan the Terrible considered itself the heir of Novgorod, Kyiv, etc., and therefore had every right to claim the lands occupied by the Livonian Order. At a certain period, completely isolated from Europe, having grown stronger, Russia needed to restore interrupted political and cultural contacts with Western Europe. It seemed possible to restore them only by ensuring high international prestige. The most accessible way, unfortunately, lay through the war. The reasons that caused the Livonian War turned out to be relevant later. All the successors of Ivan the Terrible tried to gain a foothold on the Baltic coast and raise the international status of Russia, until Peter the Great managed to do this.
2. Livonian War 1558 - 1583 has three stages. From a punitive expedition, it turned for Russia into a war on several fronts. Despite the initial defeat of the Livonian Order, it was not possible to consolidate the success. A strong Russia did not suit the neighbors, and former rivals in Europe joined forces against it (Lithuania and Poland, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate). Russia was isolated. The protracted hostilities led to the depletion of human and financial resources, which, in turn, did not contribute to further success on the battlefield. It is impossible not to take into account the influence on the course of the war and many subjective factors: the military and political talent of Stefan Batory, cases of betrayal of prominent military leaders, the low level of commanders in general, diplomatic miscalculations, etc. In the third stage, the threat of capture hung over Russia itself. key point at this stage, you can full confidence consider the defense of Pskov. Only the heroism of its participants and the timely actions of the authorities to strengthen the defense saved the country from final defeat.
3. The historical task of obtaining free access to the Baltic Sea was not ultimately resolved. Russia was forced to make territorial concessions under the terms of peace treaties with the Commonwealth and Sweden. But despite the unsuccessful end of the war for Russia, some positive results can be identified: the Livonian Order was finally defeated, in addition, the Russian state managed to avoid irreparable land losses. It was the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. for the first time loudly voiced one of the priorities in Russia's foreign policy for the next hundred and fifty years.
The consequences of the Livonian War affected many spheres of Russian life. Many years of tension in the economy led to an economic crisis. Heavy taxes led to the desolation of many lands: Novgorod, Volokolamsk district, etc. Failures in military operations, political dissent, the betrayal of some boyars and numerous attempts to discredit them by the enemy, the need to mobilize society became the reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina. The foreign policy crisis thus had a direct impact on the domestic policy of the state. The social upheavals of the 17th century are rooted in the era of Ivan the Terrible.
The defeat in the Livonian War seriously damaged the prestige of the tsar and, in general, Russia. In the peace treaty, Ivan IV is referred to only as the “Grand Duke”, he is no longer “Tsar of Kazan and Tsar of Astrakhan”. A completely new political situation developed in the area of the Baltic coast, in particular, the Commonwealth was ousted from Livonia by the Swedes.
The Livonian War rightfully occupies a prominent place in the history of the Russian state.
REFERENCES
Sources
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The largest of the wars waged by the Russians in the 16th century, but at the same time it had an important political event for a number of European states, and for European history as a whole. Starting from the 13th century, Livonia, as a confederation, was part of the German Empire. By the early 16th century, this huge medieval state was in the process of decay. It provided an outdated, loosely cohesive body politic based on and still dominated by a remnant of inter-tribal alliances.
Germany did not have its own national image at the time of the development of the money economy. The once powerful and bloodthirsty Livonian Order completely lost its militancy and could not resist the new young state, which considered the unity of the nation as the priority of its policy and vigorously, regardless of means, pursued a national policy.
Geopolitics of the Northern European states in the 16th century
Without exception, all the powers surrounding Livonia would not refuse, under favorable circumstances, to annex the southeastern coast of the Baltic to themselves. The Lithuanian principality, the Polish kingdom were interested in having access to the sea in order to carry out direct trade relations with the countries of the West, and not pay a huge fee for the use of foreign sea areas. Sweden and Denmark did not need to acquire maritime trade routes in the Baltic Sea, they were quite satisfied with receiving a transit duty from merchants, which was very significant.
Trade routes passed not only through the sea, but also overland. Both states played the role of gatekeepers, and there was a fierce competition between them in this regard. It is clear that further fate Livonia was not indifferent to the decrepit, disintegrating into small principalities of Germany. And the attitude towards the claims of the young Moscow tsar was far from unambiguous. Far-sighted politicians from the overthrown Hanseatic League dreamed of using the growing power of Moscow to restore the former trading power in the east.
Livonia has also become a battlefield for states located very far from the Baltic coast. England and Spain continued their dispute in western waters.
Results of the Livonian War
Therefore, after the Russian troops defeated the Livonians, and the diplomatic negotiations of the northern states did not lead to the desired results, they all rallied as a united front against the troops. The war dragged on for almost 30 years and its results for the Muscovite state were not at all comforting. The main task of access to the Baltic Sea was not solved. Instead of two neighbors eternally hostile to Russia - the Principality of Lithuania and Poland, a new strong state of the Commonwealth took shape.
As a result of a ten-year truce, which was formalized on January 5, 1582 in the village of Yama Zapolsky, this new state secured most of the Baltic states. The trophies of war included 41 cities and fortresses occupied by Russian troops. The economy of the Russian state was drained of blood, and political prestige was undermined.
Interesting facts about the results of the Livonian War
- The Livonians were amazed at the generosity of the Russian troops, who took out church property from Orthodox churches, but they left weapons in the fortresses - cannons, a large amount of gunpowder and cores.
- As a result of the defeat, the Russians, who had lived in Livonia for centuries, had to leave the Baltic states and return to Novgorod, Pskov and other cities, although most of the cities they left had Russian names.
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569)
Kingdom of Sweden
Danish-Norwegian Union
| Ivan groznyj Magnus Livonian |
Gotthard Ketler Sigismund II August † Stefan Batory Eric XIV † Johan III Frederick II |
| date | |
|---|---|
| Place |
territories of modern Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and North-Western Russia |
| Outcome |
victory of the Commonwealth and Sweden |
| Changes |
annexation of parts of Livonia and Velizh to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; to Sweden - parts of Estonia, Ingria and Karelia |
Battles:
Narva (1558) - Derpt - Ringen - Tiersen - Ermes - Fellin - Nevel - Polotsk (1563) - Chashniki (1564) - Ezerishche - Chashniki (1567) - Revel (1570) - Lode - Pärnu - Revel (1577) - Weisenstein - Wenden - Polotsk (1579) - Sokol - Rzhev - Velikiye Luki - Toropets - Nastasino - Zavolochye - Padis - Shklov - Narva (1581) - Radziwill's raid - Pskov - Lyalitsy - Oreshek Treaties:
Livonian War
The war of Moscow Rus' against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic. In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible hoped to conquer the East Slavic lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In November 1557, he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod to march into the Livonian lands. In December, this army, under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors, moved to Pskov. The auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov at that time began hostilities from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. In January 1558, the tsarist army approached Yuryev (Derpt), but could not take it. Then part of the Russian troops turned towards Riga, and the main forces headed for Narva (Rugodiv), where they joined up with Shestunov's army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and captured it the next day.
Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of the governor Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and the duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the fortress of Syrensk. On June 2, the regiments were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads in order to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.
From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where everything was concentrated Russian army. In mid-June, it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia was under Russian control. The army of the Order was inferior in number to the Russians by several times and, moreover, was scattered over separate garrisons. It could not oppose anything to the army of the Tsar. Until October 1558, Russian rati in Livonia captured 20 castles.
In January 1559, Russian troops wenttrip to Riga
. Near Tirzen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken. The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians managed to recruit landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. However, failures continued to haunt them. In January 1560, the army of governor Borboshin took the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist. In 1561, the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish king and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (Esel Island went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became the Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.
Poland and Sweden demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia.Ivan groznyj
not only did not fulfill this requirement, but also invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland, at the end of 1562. His army numbered 33407 people. The purpose of the campaign was the well-fortified Polotsk. On February 15, 1563, the city, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. When the war resumed, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus. However, the repressions that began against the leaders of the "chosen council" - the actual government until the end of the 50s, had a negative impact on the combat capability of the Russian army. Many governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent voivodes, PrinceAndrey Kurbsky
, close to the Adashev brothers, who were members of the elected council, and feared for his life. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.
In 1569, as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state, the Commonwealth (Republic), under the leadership of the Polish king. Now Polish troops came to the aid of the Lithuanian army. In 1570, hostilities both in Lithuania and Livonia intensified. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan the Terrible decided to createown fleet
. At the beginning of 1570, he issued a "letter of commendation" for the organization of a privateer (private) fleet, acting on behalf of the Russian Tsar, to the Dane Carsten Rode. Roda managed to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to the Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, in the same 1570, Russian troops tried to capture Reval, thereby starting a war with Sweden. However, the city freely received supplies from the sea, and Ivan had to lift the siege after seven months. The Russian privateer fleet never became a formidable force.
After a seven-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Tsar Ivan undertook a newtrip to Revel
. However, this time the siege of the city was not successful. Then the Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Wolmar and several other castles. However, these successes were not decisive.
Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front worsened. In 1575, an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, was elected king of the Commonwealth. He managed to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Batory entered into an alliance with Sweden, and the combined Polish-Swedish army in the autumn of 1578 defeated the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.
By the beginning of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan the Terrible had main armies of about 40,000 men, approximately equal in number. The Russian tsar, after the defeat at Wenden, was not confident in his abilities and offered to start peace negotiations. However, Batory rejected this proposal and launched an offensive against Polotsk. In autumn, the Polish army laid siege to the city and after a month-long siege captured it. Rati governor Sheina and Sheremeteva, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles also captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. Ivan the Terrible clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.
In 1580, Batory undertook a large campaign against Rus', capturing and ruining the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. Then the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardi captured the city of Korela and eastern part Karelian isthmus. In 1581, Swedish troops captured Narva, and the following year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting was transferred to the territory of Rus'.
In September 1581, a 50,000-strong Polish army led by the king laid siege to Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. True, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages that provided covert communication between various defense sectors. The upper tiers of the towers were also connected by passages. The height of the walls was 6.5 m, and the thickness was from 4 to 6 m, which made them invulnerable to the then artillery. Inside the Great Walls there was the Middle City, also surrounded by walls, in the Middle City - the fortified Dovmont city, and in the Dovmont city - the stone Kremlin. Above the river great wall Dovmont's towns rose 10 meters, and the Kremlin - 17 meters, which made these fortifications almost impregnable. The city had significant stocks of food, weapons and ammunition.
The Russian army was dispersed over many points, from where an enemy invasion was expected. The tsar himself, with a considerable gradual detachment, stopped in Staritsa, not daring to meet the Polish army marching towards Pskov.
When the tsar learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, the army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, who was appointed "great commander", was sent to Pskov. Seven other governors were subordinate to him. All the inhabitants of Pskov and the garrison were sworn in that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the last drop of blood. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25 thousand people and was about half the size of Batory's army. By order of Shuisky, the surroundings of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find food and food there.
On August 18, the Polish army approached the city at a distance of 2-3 cannon shots. During the week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of the Russian fortifications and only on August 26 ordered his army to approach the city. However, the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian guns and retreated to the Cherekha River. Here Batory set up a fortified camp.
The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they rolled rounds to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, placing 20 guns, on the morning of September 6, they began to fire at both towers and 150 m of the wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were badly damaged, and a breach 50 meters wide was formed in the wall. But the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the breach.
On September 8, Polish troops launched an assault. The attackers managed to capture both damaged towers. However, shots from a large cannon "Bars", capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than one kilometer, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins, rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, led by Shuisky himself. The enemy could not hold the Pokrovskaya Tower - and retreated.
After the failure of the assault, Batory ordered digging to blow up the walls. The Russians managed to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, the rest of the Poles could not be completed. On October 24, Polish batteries began to fire at Pskov from behind the Velikaya River with red-hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city's defenders quickly put out the fire. Four days later, a Polish detachment with crowbars and picks approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the base of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there is another wall and a ditch that the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and pitch.
On November 2, Batory's army launched the last assault on Pskov. This time the Poles attacked the western wall. Prior to that, for five days it was subjected to heavy shelling and was destroyed in several places. However, the defenders of Pskov met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back, never reaching the breaches.
By that time, the morale of the besiegers had fallen noticeably. But the besieged also experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break into Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.
On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began to prepare for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Caves Monastery, 60 km from Pskov, but the garrison of 300 archers, supported by monks, successfully repelled two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.
Stefan Batory, convinced that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoysky, and he himself left for Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops decreased by almost half - to 26 thousand people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, the death toll and desertion increased. Under these conditions, Bathory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Rus' renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.
In 1583 it was signedPlus Armistice
with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. For Russia there was only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva. However, in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and the Swedes resumed and this time were successful for Moscow. As a result, under the Tyavzinsky Treaty on " eternal peace"Rus' regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But this was only small consolation. In general, Ivan the Terrible's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.
At the same time, sharp contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia facilitated the position of the Russian tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Rus'. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory's campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly not enough to capture and hold a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. SimultaneouslyLivonian War
showed that Sweden and Poland in the east had a formidable enemy that had to be seriously reckoned with.
The best that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.
The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Rus', by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.
Beginning of the Livonian War
The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Rus'.
Wars were fought on several fronts:
- The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
- The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
- The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.
Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. In the territory modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltics were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the top.
Map of the Livonian War
Reasons for the start of the Livonian War
Ivan 4 the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push back the borders of the state in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:
- Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livnsky Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order single-handedly withdrew from this obligation.
- The weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national differences.
Speaking about the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles, who wished to appropriate new lands, were interested in the capture of Livonia. But main reason one can single out the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.
Course of the war and major events
The Livonian War was fought with long breaks and is historically divided into four stages.
First stage of the war
At the first stage (1558–1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. The Russian army in the first months captured Derpt, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.
by the most dangerous adversary for Russia there was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the peasants of the Baltic were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of the war, exactions and other disasters.
Second phase of the war
The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar refused to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Tsardom. The conflict could only be continued under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the Chosen Rada.
It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.
Third stage of the war
The third stage (1570–1577) is the battles local importance Russia with Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.
Fourth stage of the war
At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic, but soon the luck turned away from the king and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of united Poland and Lithuania (the Commonwealth), Stefan Batory, drove Ivan the Terrible out of the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.). The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Commonwealth was provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.
The defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat (since August 1581). For 5 months of the siege, the garrison and the inhabitants of the city repelled 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.
The end of the war and its results
The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian Empire and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Peace of Plus was signed in 1583.
Thus, the following causes of damage can be distinguished Russian state, which sum up the results of the Liovna war:
- adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three strong states;
- the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
- A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.
Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy in long years forward - get access to the Baltic Sea.
History of Russia / Ivan IV the Terrible / Livonian War (briefly)
Livonian War (briefly)
Livonian War - a brief description
After the conquest of the recalcitrant Kazan, Russia sent forces to take Livonia.
Researchers identify two main reasons for the Livonian War: the need for trade of the Russian state in the Baltic, as well as the expansion of possessions. The struggle for dominance over the Baltic waters was between Russia and Denmark, Sweden, as well as Poland and Lithuania.
The reason for the outbreak of hostilities (Livonian War)
The main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the fact that the Livonian Order did not pay the tribute that it had to pay under the peace treaty of the fifty-fourth year.
The Russian army invaded Livonia in 1558. At first (1558-1561) several castles and cities were taken (Yuryev, Narva, Derpt).
However, instead of continuing the successful offensive, the Moscow government provides the order with a truce, while at the same time equipping a military expedition against the Crimea. The Livonian knights, taking advantage of the support, gathered forces and defeated the Moscow troops a month before the end of the truce.
Against Crimea, Russia did not achieve a positive result from military operations.
The favorable moment for victory in Livonia was also missed. Master Ketler in 1561 signs an agreement according to which the order passes under the protectorate of Poland and Lithuania.
After making peace with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow concentrated its forces on Livonia, but now, instead of a weak order, it had to face several powerful contenders at once. And if at first it was possible to avoid war with Denmark and Sweden, then the war with the Polish-Lithuanian king was inevitable.
The greatest achievement of the Russian troops in the second stage of the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in 1563, after which there were many fruitless negotiations and unsuccessful battles, as a result of which even the Crimean Khan decided to abandon the alliance with the Moscow authorities.
The final stage of the Livonian War
The final stage of the Livonian War (1679-1683)- the military invasion of the Polish king Bathory in Russia, which at the same time was at war with Sweden.
In August, Stefan Batory took Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki was taken and small towns. On September 9, 1581, Narva, Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod were taken by Sweden, after which the struggle for Livonia ceased to be relevant for Grozny.
Since it was impossible to wage war with two enemies, the king concludes a truce with Batory.
The result of this war was the conclusion completely two treaties unfavorable for Russia, as well as the loss of many cities.
Main events and chronology of the Livonian War
Schematic map of the Livonian War
Interesting materials:
Livonian war in the history of Russia.
The Livonian War is a major armed conflict of the 16th century between the Livonian Confederation, the Russian Tsardom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark were also drawn into the conflict.
Military operations, for the most part, were carried out on the territory where the Baltic countries, Belarus, as well as the North-Western region of the Russian Federation are currently located.
Causes of the Livonian War.
The Livonian Order owned a huge part of the Baltic lands, but by the 16th century it began to lose power due to internal strife and the Reformation.
Due to its coastal position, the lands of Livonia were considered convenient for trade routes.
Fearing the growth of Rus', Livonia did not allow Moscow to trade there in full force. The result of such a policy was the hostility of Russians to their neighbors.
In order not to give Livonia into the hands of one of the European powers, which could conquer the lands of a weakening state, Moscow decided to win back the territories itself.
Livonian war of 1558-1583.
Beginning of the Livonian War.
Military operations began with the fact of the attack of the Russian kingdom on the territory of Livonia in the winter of 1558.
The war lasted in several stages:
- First stage. Russian troops conquered Narva, Derpt and other cities.
- The second stage: the liquidation of the Livonian Confederation took place in 1561 (Vilna Treaty).
The war took on the character of a confrontation between the Russian kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
- Third stage. In 1563, the Russian army conquered Polotsk, but a year later they were defeated at Chashniki.
- Fourth stage. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569, joining forces with the Kingdom of Poland, turns into the Commonwealth. In 1577, Russian troops besiege Revel, lose Polotsk, Narva.
End of the war.
Livonian War ended in 1583 after the signing of two peace treaties: Yam-Zapolsky (1582) and Plyussky (1583)
According to the agreements, Moscow lost all the reclaimed lands and border territories with the Rech: Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod.
The lands of the Livonian Confederation were divided between the Commonwealth, the Swedish and Danish kingdoms.
Results of the Livonian War.
Russian historians have long characterized the Livonian War as an attempt by Rus' to reach the Baltic Sea. But today the causes and reasons for the war have already been revised. Interesting to follow what were the results of the Livonian war.
The war was the end of the existence of the Livonian Order.
The military actions of Livonia provoked a change in the internal politics of countries of Eastern Europe, thanks to which a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, which for another hundred years kept the whole of Europe in fear on an equal footing with the Roman Empire.
As for the Russian kingdom, the Livonian War became a catalyst for the economic and political crisis in the country and led to the decline of the state.
The Livonian War (1558-1583) for the right to possess the territories and possessions of Livonia (a historical region on the territory of the modern Latvian and Estonian republics) began as a war between Russia and the Livonian Knightly Order, which later spilled over into a war between Russia, Sweden and.
The prerequisite for the war was the Russian-Livonian negotiations, which ended in 1554 with the signing of a peace treaty for a period of 15 years. According to this agreement, Livonia was obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Russian Tsar for the city of Dorpat (modern Tartu, originally known as Yuryev), since it previously belonged to the Russian princes, the heirs of Ivan IV. Under the pretext of paying Yuryev tribute later due date, the king declared war on Livonia in January 1558.
Causes of the Livonian War
As for the true reasons for declaring war on Livonia by Ivan IV, two possible versions are expressed. The first version was proposed in the 50s of the 19th century by the Russian historian Sergei Solovyov, who presented Ivan the Terrible as the predecessor of Peter the Great in his intentions to seize the Baltic port, thereby establishing unhindered economic (trade) relations with European countries. Until 1991, this version remained the main one in Russian and Soviet historiography, and some Swedish and Danish scholars also agreed with it.
However, starting from the 60s of the 20th century, the assumption that Ivan IV was driven solely by economic (trade) interest in the Livonian War was severely criticized. Critics pointed out that, in justifying military operations in Livonia, the tsar never referred to the need for unhindered trade relations with Europe. Instead, he spoke of heritage rights, calling Livonia his fiefdom. Alternative explanation, proposed by the German historian Norbert Angermann (1972) and supported by scholar Erik Tyberg (1984) and some Russian scholars in the 1990s, notably Filyushkin (2001), highlights the tsar's desire to expand spheres of influence and consolidate his power.
Most likely, Ivan IV started the war without any strategic plans. He simply wanted to punish the Livonians and force them to pay tribute and comply with all the conditions of the peace treaty. Initial success encouraged the tsar to conquer the entire territory of Livonia, but here his interests clashed with those of Sweden and the Commonwealth, turning the local conflict into a long and exhausting war between the greatest powers of the Baltic region.
The main periods of the Livonian War
As the hostilities developed, Ivan IV changed allies, the picture of hostilities also changed. Thus, four main periods can be distinguished in the Livonian War.
- From 1558 to 1561 - the period of the initial successful operations of the Russians in Livonia;
- 1560s - a period of confrontation with the Commonwealth and peaceful relations with Sweden;
- From 1570 to 1577 - the last attempts of Ivan IV to conquer Livonia;
- From 1578 to 1582 - the attacks of Sweden and the Commonwealth, forcing Ivan IV to liberate the Livonian lands he had captured and proceed to peace negotiations.
The first victories of the Russian army
In 1558, the Russian army, without encountering serious resistance from the Livonian army, on May 11th took the important port located on the Narva River, and after that on July 19th conquered the city of Dorpat. After a long truce, which lasted from March to November 1559, in 1560 the Russian army made another attempt to attack Livonia. On August 2, the main army of the Order was defeated near Ermes (modern Ergeme), and on August 30, the Russian army, led by Prince Andrei Kurbsky, took Fellin Castle (modern Viljandi Castle).
When the fall of the weakened Livonian Order became obvious, the knightly society and the Livonian cities began to seek support from the Baltic countries - the Principality of Lithuania, Denmark and Sweden. In 1561, the country was divided: the last landmaster of the Order, Gotthard Kettler, became a subject of Sigismund II Augustus, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the destroyed Order. At the same time, the northern part of Livonia, including the city of Reval (modern Tallinn), was occupied by Swedish troops. Sigismund II was the main rival of Ivan IV in the Livonian War, therefore, in an attempt to unite with King Eric XIV of Sweden, the tsar declared war on the Principality of Lithuania in 1562. A huge Russian army, led by the Tsar himself, began the siege of Polotsk, a city on the eastern border of the Principality of Lithuania, and captured it on February 15, 1563. In the next few years, the Lithuanian army was able to take revenge, winning two battles in 1564 and capturing two minor fortresses in 1568, but it failed to achieve decisive successes in the war.
Tipping point: victories turn to defeat
By the beginning of the 70s of the 16th century, the international situation had changed again: the coup d'état in Sweden (Eric XIV was deposed by his brother John III) put an end to the Russian-Swedish alliance; Poland and Lithuania, united in 1569 to form the state of the Commonwealth, on the contrary, adhered to a peaceful policy due to the illness of King Sigismund II Augustus, who died in 1579, and periods of interregnum (1572-1573, 1574-1575).
Due to these circumstances, Ivan IV tried to oust the Swedish army from the territory of northern Livonia: the Russian army and the royal subject, the Danish prince Magnus (brother of Frederick II, king of Denmark), conducted a siege of the city of Reval for 30 weeks (from August 21, 1570 March 16, 1571), but in vain.
The alliance with the Danish king showed its complete failure, and the raids of the Crimean Tatars, such as, for example, the burning of Moscow by Khan Davlet I Gerai on May 24, 1571, forced the king to postpone military operations in Livonia for several years.
In 1577, Ivan IV made his last attempt to conquer Livonia. Russian troops occupied the entire territory of the country with the exception of the cities of Reval and Riga. The following year, the war reached its final stage, fatal for Rus' in the Livonian War.
Defeat of Russian troops
In 1578, the Russian troops were defeated by the joint efforts of the armies of the Commonwealth and Sweden near the Wenden fortress (modern Cesis fortress), after which the royal subject, Prince Magnus, joined the Polish army. In 1579, the Polish king Stefan Batory, a talented general, laid siege to Polotsk again; in the following year, he invaded Rus' and ravaged the Pskov region, capturing the fortresses of Velizh and Usvyat and subjecting Velikie Luki to devastating fire. During the third campaign against Rus' in August 1581, Batory began the siege of Pskov; the garrison under the leadership of the Russian prince Ivan Shuisky repulsed 31 attacks.
At the same time, Swedish troops captured Narva. On January 15, 1582, Ivan IV signed the Yamzapolsky peace treaty near the town of Zapolsky Yam, which ended the war with the Commonwealth. Ivan IV renounced the territories in Livonia, Polotsk and Velizh (Veliky Luki was returned to the Russian kingdom). In 1583, a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which the Russian cities of Yam, Ivangorod and Koporye passed to the Swedes.
Results of the Livonian War
The defeat in the Livonian War was devastating for the foreign policy of Ivan IV, it weakened the position of Rus' in front of its western and northern neighbors, the war had a detrimental effect on the northwestern regions of the country.
