Medieval Russia and Europe. Who teaches whom. Rus' ancient and medieval. The era of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Story
Medieval: Rus' is a rather amorphous, insufficiently clear, chronologically blurred concept, which opens with the time of the beginning political fragmentation Ancient Rus', the cessation of the existence of a single Old Russian state and the simultaneous establishment of key socio-economic, political, cultural, religious, ideological institutions and categories feudal society based primarily on the feudal hierarchy, the land dependence of some segments of the population on others. These features are fully revealed, without practically any civilizational counterbalances, in the Russian centralized state of the 15th-16th centuries. The Russian Middle Ages ends, apparently, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, when Russia entered the " Time of Troubles"and after it turned towards new civilizational challenges that came from the advanced Western countries, standing on the eve of bourgeois revolutions and the fall of absolutist, typically medieval political regimes.
At the same time, the vagueness and blurring of this periodization is explained by the fact that both in the 17th century and in the 18th century. powerful signs of the Middle Ages, especially in the boundless Russian expanses, continued to define Russian life. Therefore, when approaching the solution of this issue, one should constantly take into account the place, time, and pace of civilizational changes.
The above periodization is based on a set of criteria and, first of all, socio-economic and political characteristics, the feudal-hierarchical system and the quality of the state structure.
However, this historical outline takes into account only the main civilizational landmarks that apply to one degree or another both to countries Western Europe, and to the most developed regions of Russia and neighboring states of Western Asia, i.e. to the entire Eurasian space. But as soon as we touch the entire territory of the peoples of Russia, these criteria begin to fluctuate. It is no coincidence that Russian scholars propose specifically for Russia to single out the concept of the late Middle Ages and early modern times.
We have to take into account the fact that in Western Europe civilizational processes proceeded much faster than in Russia. The main signs of the Middle Ages were subjected to corrosion there already in the XIV-XV centuries. according to the mighty pace of the Renaissance, the onset of the Reformation and progress on this basis of the human personality. The fantastic geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries, which expanded the world horizons of European countries, were of great importance for the departure from the Middle Ages. In addition, a manufacturing system began to take shape - the forerunner of free enterprise, the elimination of serfdom and the stubborn struggle of cities for freedom from feudal and royal dictates, the struggle for self-government. The absolutist power, the feudal hierarchy, the estate system, as a result, remained on an increasingly unreliable economic, cultural, psychological foundation, met with resistance from more and more civilizational counterweights, loosening the feudal soil and preparing it for the accomplishments of the New Age.
17th century essentially opens the period of the New Age in Western Europe - a transition to a change in the main civilizational paradigms and a gradual assertion: the principles of such an organization of society, which have not been exhausted to this day. At the same time, the main signs of the Middle Ages in Western European countries (depending on the regions) for a long time - both in the 17th century and in the 17th century. – continued to exist, slowly giving way to a new European civilization based on bourgeois relations in the economy and democratic principles in politics. This process proceeded unevenly in different countries: faster in the Netherlands, England, Italian city-states, slower in France, Spain, German states.
The Middle Ages sometimes still held on quite tenaciously in the European region. The shadow of the Inquisition still hung menacingly over Spain, ascetic scientists burned at the stake in Italy and Poland, the torches of St. Bartholomew's Night in France ominously illuminated the triumph of Catholic reaction. bloody mode Henry VIII, and then the feudal dictatorship of Elizabeth in England called into question the emerging personal and freedom-loving priorities.
In Russia, due to the general slow development of the region, the main signs of the Middle Ages appeared much later than in the countries of Western Europe. Only at the end of the existence of Ancient Rus' did they reveal themselves fully enough, while in Western Europe they already began to experience a certain crisis. Moreover, these features of the Middle Ages in Russia are affirmed in a much more finished form, brought to its logical conclusion. Such was serfdom, the autocratic feudal state and its extreme form - the feudal dictatorship of Ivan IV the Terrible, the formation of the absolutism of the first Romanovs and the curtailment of estate representation.
The advanced countries of Western Europe at that time were already parting with serfdom, and the absolutist monarchies found themselves in a deep civilizational crisis. Therefore, the Russian Middle Ages did not end at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, but in its main features continued further.
It was during this period of time, apparently, that the Eurasian essence took shape in its main features. Russian state. The annexation of the Volga and Ural regions to Russia, the inclusion of the Muslim peoples of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates into Russia, the advance to Siberia gradually turned Russia into a country that, both in territorial and political, ethnic, religious, mental terms, was increasingly influenced by Asia. At the same time, the blockade of Russian borders in the West and the unsuccessful attempt during the Livonian War to break the ring of this blockade continued. The West erected an iron curtain against Russia, contributing to the stagnation of the medieval order in the country and the turn of its state face to the East
This was largely facilitated by the unsuccessful attempt of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuanian-Russian state) to become the initiator of the unification of all East Slavic lands, and the strong support of the emerging unified Russian state with a center: in Moscow on Golden Horde, and then the crushing of the Horde itself by the Moscow State and the mastery (to some extent) of its political traditions.
The victory of the great Lithuanian prince Olgerd at Blue Waters over the Golden Horde army (1363), the defeat by Dmitry Donskoy of Mamai on the Kulikovo field (1380), the famous standing on the Ugra (1480) and the triumph of Ivan III in the fight against the Golden Horde meant the final the defeat of the East in its confrontation with the West.
But a new confrontation between East and West was already growing - the Turkish threat was approaching after the crushing of Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks. This time, Russia remained on the periphery of terrible events, but the tongues of the all-devouring Muslim flame reached Russian limits, constantly fueling the militant hatred of the Crimean Khanate for Rus', inspiring the hopes of the defeated Muslim khanates on the Volga.
All this did not contribute to the turn of Russian civilization in a western direction, conserved the Eurasian features of Russian politics and Russian life, although the general civilizational parameters of social development, set by the advanced countries of the West, imperiously dictated to Russia the need to join the country to these emerging universal values. However, attempts in this direction were timid, isolated and unsystematic, they were crushed by medieval ideas and social practice.
The leading processes in Rus' were the further strengthening of the landlord class as a social and military support of the Russian centralized state, the continuation of the enslavement of the Russian, and especially the Russian peasantry, the strengthening of autocratic feudal features in the political system of the country.
In all these processes of the development of the country within the framework of the Middle Ages, an important place was occupied by the Russian Orthodox Church, more and more built into the political state of society and largely determined its socio-economic, colonization, cultural processes. The influence of the Church has at times been all-encompassing and contradictory. On the one hand, it cemented the society on the paths of political consolidation of the country, its struggle for independence and sovereignty; contributed to the development of Russian culture, strengthening the morality of the people, rooting humanistic tendencies in it, overcoming backward pagan traits, including by introducing Christianity to the peoples of the Volga and Ural regions; actively participated in the economic progress of the country through efforts in the field of organizing a large patrimonial economy and supporting the internal colonization of the country. On the other hand, the Church maintained the main medieval political institutions and traditions; claimed a leading role in the system of the new Russian statehood; stood as a wall in the way of new civilizational trends from the West; contributed to the isolation of Russia from the rest of the non-Orthodox world and its increasingly aggressive opposition to this world. This confrontation was especially aggravated due to the Church's promotion of the idea of "Moscow - Rome", which became the state medieval propaganda panacea, covering up and justifying the civilizational backwardness of the country.
It was the focus of all these contradictory features of Russian life against the backdrop of the development of the Eurasian space that led to the most difficult socio-economic and political crisis, which ended in "Time of Troubles."
General characteristics of medieval Rus'
In the history of the Russian state and culture, the period from the 9th to the 17th centuries. belongs special place. It was in the Middle Ages that the borders of the state were mainly determined, the ethno-cultural foundations of future nations and national languages, Orthodox-Christian social ideals and basic values were formed, a rich culture developed. There is a huge historiography about this period. Among the issues that traditionally cause discussions among historians, one should name such as: the origin of the term "Rus", the role of exogenous factors in the early stages of the formation of ancient Russian statehood, the genesis of feudalism in Eastern Slavs and the role of the geopolitical factor that influenced the specifics of Russian history and culture, the concept of the Pre-Renaissance in Russian culture at the end of the 14th–15th centuries. and etc.
There are three periods in the history of medieval Rus': I - ancient history Russian state from the second half of the 9th century. until the 30s of the XIII century; II - the second half of the XIII-XV centuries; III - the beginning of the XVI-XVII centuries.
The history of the Old Russian state can be divided into three stages. The first of them is the time of a rather long “gathering” of the East Slavic lands. It has been stretched since the 80s of the 9th century. almost to the end of the tenth century. The second stage is the time of existence of a relatively unified Kievan early feudal state, approximately from the time of Prince Vladimir I until the 20s of the XIII century, when it finally disintegrated into independent principalities. And, finally, the third stage - the domination of feudal fragmentation - from the 20s of the XII century. before the Mongol invasions of the 30-40s of the XIII century.
The unification of the East Slavic lands was prepared by internal socio-economic processes. Slavic at its core, Kievan Rus absorbed the Baltic, Finno-Ugric tribes, and the unification of the North and South was accelerated by the participation of the Varangian squads in this process.
Within the framework of the Old Russian state, the genesis of feudalism took place, the specificity of which was reflected in the formation of its basis - feudal land ownership, the social class structure. A particularly significant development factor was the adoption at the end of the tenth century. Christianity, which turned into a form of the ideology that dominated medieval society, which determined the psychology and social behavior of people of that time.
The Baptism of Rus' was an important stage in the development of its culture, which acquired completely new features. The Byzantine influence became the most significant after the adoption of Christianity, however, it was soon rethought and reworked on the basis of an original culture, the origins of which date back to ancient times.
The history of the Russian lands of the II period can be divided into three stages. The first covers the 40s of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. and is characterized by a deep demographic crisis, a slowdown in socio-economic development, which was the result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the 30s of the XIII century. The second stage falls on the XIV century. At this time, the crisis is gradually overcome, development is accelerating feudal relations, political centers are emerging, fighting for leading position in the region, the first attempts are being made to liberate from the foreign yoke. The third stage - the 15th century - is characterized by a relatively rapid growth of productive forces, the involvement in the development of feudalism of lands with a Finno-Ugric population due to internal colonization in North-Eastern Rus'. Cities are fortified. By the end of the XV century. a state was formed estate monarchy- The Muscovite state, which achieved complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar dependence. Starting from the XV century. the prerequisites for the formation of new nationalities, the allocation of their languages, features of material and spiritual culture gradually took shape. Within the Russian state, the reunification of the former lands of Kievan Rus began.
For two and a half centuries, Russian culture has gone from a terrible ruin, which stopped its development, through a stubborn revival, which led to the highest achievements of the late XIV-XV centuries. Diverse in its local characteristics, it increasingly took shape as a single whole.
In the III period, in the conditions of the Muscovite state, the phenomenon of Russia was formed in its main features. Then the very name of the country was born and fixed.
Medieval Rus' was slowly fading into the past. In the 17th century the process of the genesis of capitalist relations was already irreversible. The state structure of Russia underwent significant changes - from a class-representative monarchy, it turned into an absolutist monarchy. There was a crisis of religious ideology and church organization. Society has become more open. During the middle of the second half of the XVI-first third of the XVII century. there was a turn from the culture of Ancient Rus' to the culture of Russia of the New Age. This was the beginning of a new period in Russian history - the preparation of the country for the era of reforms of Peter I.
From Kievan Rus to Muscovy. - Russian law in the Middle Ages.
From Kievan Rus to Muscovy
The Russian people as a separate ethnic community was formed within the framework of the Slavs - a vast ethnic group that lived in the central, southern and eastern parts of Europe, which was influenced by the migration processes of the first half of the 1st millennium, known as the Great Migration of Peoples. The Slavic tribes, entrenched in the east of Europe, settled in the northwestern region (the Ilmen Slavs, then united by the Novgorod veche republic with an invited prince), in the Smolensk and Polotsk regions (Krivichi), on the western bank of the Dnieper (glade). Great influence on the formation process ancient Russian people rendered local (Balts, Finno-Ugric tribes) or neighboring autochthonous tribes and peoples, some of which already had their own statehood or proto-state (Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths in the VIII century BC - IV century AD), and especially relations with the states of the Khazars and Avars (IV-VII centuries). Direct formation of the ancient Russian state in the VIII century. It was preceded by the coexistence of three neighboring state associations - Kuyavia (Principality of Kiev), Slavia (Principality of Novgorod) and Artania (presumably the Principality of Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula). If in ethnic terms the Slavs and Rus are not identical, then it is historically permissible to say that both the Varangians (Rus), and the Slavs of the north of the East European Plain, and the Finno-Ugric peoples, who lived with the latter interspersed, ended up within the boundaries of a single multi-ethnic state - Kiev Rus'.
In the VIII-X centuries. on the territory of the Don and the North Caucasus there was a state Khazar Khaganate, which in its composition was also multi-ethnic and subjugated about 25 states as vassals. In the capital of the state, Itil, there was a judicial institution in which seven judges used the norms of Sharia, Byzantine law, Torah and customary law. For w
In the 8th century Favorable prerequisites are being created for the unification of the Eastern Slavs who lived in the Novgorod and Kiev lands. They were helped in this by the Varangian leaders invited, according to chronicle legend, to reign in 862, among whom the legendary Rurik settled in Novgorod, and his governors Askold and Dir in Kiev. The rallying of the two lands was facilitated by the growth by that time of the importance of the trade route from the Baltic to the Black Sea along the rivers and portages (the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks"). In this sense, security concerns along this trade route are similar to those of the Quraysh tribe for the safety of the spice caravan route through the Arabian Peninsula. This tribe, as is known, also belonged to the clan of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of the state, which at first stretched along this trade route. Kyiv princes part of their campaigns of conquest devoted to the expansion of trade territory and the provision of the most favorable terms of trade. For example, all wars with Byzantium ended in trade agreements.
The Old Russian state arose as a kind of federation of tribes. Therefore, the important tasks of the new political organization, in addition to the traditional collection of taxes, law enforcement, border defense, were the establishment of peaceful, fruitful intertribal and interstate relations.
The main forms of feudal land ownership were the princely domain and patrimony. Land was acquired by grant, inheritance or purchase. The principality of Kiev takes shape as a typical early feudal (seigneurial) medieval monarchy headed by a grand prince, who has vassal relations with other princes fixed by tradition (including coercion with weapons) or by agreement. The strengthening of the specific princes brought to life the emergence of a new authority - the princely congress, at which the issues of war and peace, the division of lands, and vassal relations were decided. The Grand Duke relied in his activities on the squad and the council of elders, which included boyars and "princely" men. The princely palace economy was in charge of tiuns and elders. In the cities there were princely governors, in rural areas - volostels. Local government relied on military garrisons led by thousands, centurions and tenths. There was also a system of feeding (fees from the local population). The peasant community (verv) carried out land redistribution, investigated crimes on its territory, and resolved individual tax issues and disputes.
The prince and his warriors (according to age and social status they were divided into "senior" and "junior") made up a layer of service people. The other category was made up of the free - merchants, artisans and "people" (communal peasants). The lowest category was formed from dependent people who fell into bondage or slavery.
The fighting comrades-in-arms of the prince, called boyars, eventually turn into vassal farmers (patrimonials). In their relations with communal peasants they make extensive use of non-economic (capture, violence) and economic (bondage, debt) exploitation. Princes also use a similar manner of dominating the land and people at the same time on an ever-larger scale. In the X century. Princess Olga established points (“graveyards”) and terms for collecting tribute, regulated its size (lessons). At the beginning of the XI century. Prince Vladimir (980-1015) established a tithe - a tax in favor of the church.
The baptism of Rus' and the transformation of Christianity into the state religion had a noticeable impact on the legal and political culture of the peoples inhabiting it. This contributed to the strengthening of military, economic, political and cultural ties with Byzantium and other Christian countries, the spread of writing and literacy, the introduction of Christian moral standards, more humane than pagan ones. Monotheism (monotheism) contributed to the ideological justification and strengthening of state unity headed by the monarch, but at the same time contributed to the emergence of an autocracy regime, a kind of Caesaropapism on Russian soil, especially after the abolition of the patriarchate during the reign of Peter I.
In the XII-XIII centuries. the system of immunities is spreading, which freed the boyar estates from princely administration and court, and the boyars received the right to free "departure" (to change the overlord). There were also internal and external reasons that promoted feudal autonomy and princely appanage. The latter was partly caused by the unsuccessful system of succession to the princely throne along the lateral line - not from father to son, but from brother to brother, as was practiced by some Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs. The consequence was increased political fragmentation and the disintegration of Kievan Rus into a confederation of feudal states. Autonomous city veche republics arose in the northwest - Novgorod (1136-1478) and Pskov (1348-1510). In the north-eastern part of Russia, the Moscow principality, which separated from Vladimir-Suzdal, became the center of the unification. During specific fragmentation Vladimir princes managed to expand their lands and create a large princely domain, in which the service nobility became the main social support of the prince. In the first half of the XIII century. Russian princes became tributaries of the Golden Horde, retaining their administration, faith and church. Some princes borrowed the Horde methods of taxation, the organization of the pit service, certain types of troops and the state financial department.
After the collapse of the Golden Horde into independent khanates - Siberian, Kazan, Crimean and Astrakhan - the latter were seized in turn by the strengthened Muscovite state, which was transformed from a principality first into a Great Russian kingdom, and then into Russian empire. The church played an important role in this. Over time, she became the owner of significant land holdings and material values, although along with this there was a clergy oriented towards spiritual values (“non-possessors”). The idea of an autocratic kingdom found consistent development and support among church leaders and educators (concepts: "Moscow is the Third Rome", "Orthodox kingdom", "the king is God's anointed one").
The centralization inherent in autocracy was facilitated and conditioned not only by Byzantine and oriental influence, but also by the fact that the mainstay of the regime, in addition to the church and the enslaved peasantry, was not the aristocratic patrimonial, but the serving landed nobility. Cities in Rus' were more garrison fortifications and storehouses than the focus of self-government, crafts and trade communication.
The autocratic (autocratic, authoritarian) trend in the development of the Russian state at times ran into resistance from class-representative institutions - princely congresses, veche assemblies of cities, and zemstvo councils. Particularly influential were Zemsky Sobors XV I - X V I I centuries, on one of which the election of the first ruler from the Romanov dynasty, which had been in power for three centuries, took place. The last word of the political and administrative organization in the Muscovite kingdom was the introduction of a command system of government. Along with the Boyar Duma, permanent orders (protoministries) arose, subdivided into regional (Siberian, Kazan Palace, Little Russian, etc.), nationwide (ambassadorial, local, large treasury, etc.) and palace (large palace, state, stable, falconer, tsar's workshop, tsarina's workshop). In the category of temporary orders, there were secret affairs, counting, monastic, etc.
Rus the historical name of the lands of the Eastern Slavs, originating from the chronicle tribe Rus, who founded the Old Russian state. In some sources dating back to the 11th-12th centuries, the use of the concepts of Rus' or the Russian land is limited only to the Kievan principality as a collective possession of the Rurik princes and the seat of the Grand Duke's throne. From the 12th century, the name gradually passed to all specific principalities. In historiography, the term Rus has been extended to the entire territory of the Old Russian state since its foundation in 862. As a result of the political division of Rus', later clarifying terms arose, such as Little Rus', Great Rus', as well as late medieval divisions according to the coloristic scheme. In the titles of monarchs and representatives of the spiritual authorities, who claimed all-Russian legitimacy, the prefix "all Rus'" was traditionally used. From the end of the 15th century, in the writings of Orthodox scribes, Rus' began to appear in the Hellenized form of Russia (s)iya, which later became official in the Russian state. The concept of Rus' is widespread in folklore and poetry, including in such phrases as Holy Rus'.
As follows from chronicle sources, the state of the Eastern Slavs Rus got its name from the Varangians-Rus. Before calling the Varangians, Slavic tribes that inhabited the territory of the future "first Russian state", lived under their own names. Old Russian chroniclers, the earliest of which is the early 12th-century monk Nestor, simply note that “ since then the Varangian was nicknamed the Russian land».
The earliest historical document testifying to the existence of the Old Russian state is the Bertin Annals.
In which the arrival in May 839 of the Byzantine embassy from Emperor Theophilus to the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious is reported. The Byzantine delegation included ambassadors of the people of Ros ( rhos) sent to Constantinople by the ruler identified in the text as khakan (chacanus). The Old Russian state, about which practically nothing is known, during this period of time is conditionally designated in modern historiography as the Russian Khaganate.
In a number of chronicles, there are traces of the fact that early information about Rus' was also associated with the period of the reign of the Byzantine queen Irina.
(797-802). According to the researcher of chronicles M. N. Tikhomirov, these data come from Byzantine church sources.
Almost nothing is known about the religion of the ancient Slavs, since the Proto-Slavic community was located far from the centers of civilization. You can learn some facts about the mythology and religion of the ancient Slavs only with the help of mythological and linguistic reconstructions. Before the adoption of Christianity, almost all East Slavic mythology was within the framework of a phenomenon called Old Russian paganism, so we can draw information about it from Old Russian written sources. However, it should be noted that, firstly, the religion of the ruling elite and the common people always differ significantly, and, secondly, the sources, as a rule, consider characters of the upper level, pagan deities, and the characters of lower mythology usually remain on the sidelines. .
Russian culture.
painting
After the baptism of Rus', new types of monumental painting came from Byzantium - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Also, the iconographic canon was adopted from Byzantium, the invariability of which was strictly guarded by the church. This predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.
Architecture
Until the end of the 10th century, there was no monumental stone architecture in Rus', but there were rich traditions wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. Significant field skills wooden architecture determined fast development stone architecture and its originality. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone temples begins, the principles of construction of which were borrowed from Byzantium. The Byzantine architects called to Kyiv passed on to the Russian masters the extensive experience of the building culture of Byzantium.
The large churches of Kievan Rus, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the Eastern Slavic lands. Architectural style Kievan Rus established itself under the influence of the Byzantine. Early Orthodox
The churches were mostly made of wood.
The first stone church of Kievan Rus was the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv, the construction of which dates back to 989. The church was built as a cathedral not far from the prince's tower. In the first half of the XII century. The church has undergone significant renovations. At this time, the southwestern corner of the temple was completely rebuilt, a powerful pylon appeared in front of the western facade, supporting the wall. These events, most likely, were the restoration of the temple after a partial collapse due to an earthquake.
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General characteristics of medieval Rus'
In the history of the Russian state and culture, the period from the 9th to the 17th centuries. belongs to a special place. It was in the Middle Ages that the borders of the state were mainly determined, the ethno-cultural foundations of future nations and national languages were laid, Orthodox-Christian social ideals and basic values were formed, and a rich culture developed. There is a huge historiography about this period.
Among the issues that traditionally cause discussions among historians are such as: the origin of the term "Rus", the role of exogenous factors in the early stages of the formation of ancient Russian statehood, the genesis of feudalism among the Eastern Slavs and the role of the geopolitical factor that influenced the specifics of Russian history and culture, the concept of Pre-Renaissance in Russian culture of the late XIV-XV centuries. and etc.
Three periods can be traced in the history of medieval Rus': I - the most ancient history of the Russian state from the second half of the 9th century. until the 30s of the XIII century; II - the second half of the XIII-XV centuries; III - the beginning of the XVI-XVII centuries.
The history of the Old Russian state can be divided into three stages. The first of them is the time of a rather long “gathering” of the East Slavic lands. It has been stretched since the 80s of the 9th century. almost to the end of the tenth century. The second stage is the time of existence of a relatively unified Kievan early feudal state, approximately from the time of Vladimir I until the 20s of the XIII century, when it finally disintegrated into independent principalities. And, finally, the third stage - the domination of feudal fragmentation - from the 20s of the XII century. before the Mongol invasions of the 30-40s of the XIII century.
The unification of the East Slavic lands was prepared by internal socio-economic processes. Slavic at its core Kievan Rus absorbed the Baltic, Finno-Ugric tribes, and the unification of the North and South was accelerated by the participation of the Varangian squads in this process.
Within the framework of the Old Russian state, the genesis of feudalism took place, the specificity of which was reflected in the formation of its basis - feudal land ownership, the social class structure. A particularly significant development factor was the adoption at the end of the tenth century. Christianity, which turned into a form of the ideology that dominated medieval society, which determined the psychology and social behavior of people of that time.
The Baptism of Rus' was an important stage in the development of its culture, which acquired completely new features. The Byzantine influence became the most significant after the adoption of Christianity, however, it was soon rethought and reworked on the basis of an original culture, the origins of which date back to ancient times.
The history of the Russian lands of the II period can be divided into three stages. The first covers the 40s of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. and is characterized by a deep demographic crisis, a slowdown in socio-economic development, which was the result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the 30s of the XIII century. The second stage falls on the XIV century.
At this time, the crisis was gradually overcome, the development of feudal relations accelerated, political centers were formed, fighting for a leading position in the region, and the first attempts were made to liberate themselves from the foreign yoke. The third stage - the 15th century - is characterized by a relatively rapid growth of productive forces, the involvement in the development of feudalism of lands with a Finno-Ugric population due to internal colonization in North-Eastern Rus'. Cities are fortified.
By the end of the XV century. a state of the estate monarchy type was formed - Moscow state, which achieved complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar dependence. Starting from the XV century. the prerequisites for the formation of new nationalities, the allocation of their languages, features of material and spiritual culture gradually took shape. Within the Russian state, the reunification of the former lands of Kievan Rus began.
For two and a half centuries, Russian culture has gone from a terrible ruin, which stopped its development, through a stubborn revival, which led to the highest achievements of the late XIV-XV centuries. Diverse in its local characteristics, it increasingly took shape as a single whole.
In the III period, in the conditions of the Muscovite state, the phenomenon of Russia was formed in its main features. Then the very name of the country was born and fixed.
Medieval Rus' was slowly fading into the past. In the 17th century the process of the genesis of capitalist relations was already irreversible. The state structure of Russia underwent significant changes - from a class-representative monarchy, it turned into an absolutist monarchy. There was a crisis of religious ideology and church organization. Society has become more open. During the middle of the second half of the XVI-first third of the XVII century. there was a turn from the culture of Ancient Rus' to the culture of Russia of the New Age. This was the beginning of a new period in Russian history - the preparation of the country for the era of reforms of Peter I.
