The main features of religion in ancient China. Lecture: Religion of Ancient China. Deities of ancient China
A person is always trying to find an explanation for the metamorphoses taking place around. The desire to believe and attribute processes incomprehensible to us to supernatural powers inherent in man. This is how the foundations of religion and teachings were born. In China, religion is treated differently. The subtle oriental nature of the Chinese made its own adjustments to it. It is distinguished by its diversity and principles. All religions that exist today peacefully coexist with each other, without creating any conflicts on this basis.
Philosophy and main features of religion in China.
Chinese philosophy influences all aspects of China's political, economic and spiritual life. Great is its effect on traditional medicine, and on politics, and on religion. The main feature of the Chinese religion is the diversity of its types, religious pluralism. Religious protection is enshrined in China's constitution. There are two main philosophies that are widespread in China:
Confucianism
The philosophical and ethical direction of Confucianism originated in the 6th century BC. The official founder is great thinker Confucius, but do not forget about two other philosophers who contributed to the development of this teaching: Men-tzu, Sun-tzu. Their philosophical works also formed the basis of Confucianism.
The main sources are: 4 books; 5-book; 13-book; collection of quotes by Confucius "Lunui".
Confucianism lays the foundation for relationships:
1. Parent-child
2. Ruler-subject
3. Brother-brother
4. Friend-friend
5. Husband-wife
Since ancient times, the study of Confucianism was considered a sign of aristocracy. This philosophical movement enjoyed the active support of the imperial palace. All relationships were built on the basis of this teaching. The main idea is the humanization of society, where each member of society has its own place in the social system. The desire to become a noble husband "Jun-tzu" developed in a person: kindness, honesty, humanity, fidelity, responsibility. Confucianism is relevant in the modern world. This teaching has received wide publicity in all corners of the Earth.
Taoism
The peer of Confucianism. According to historical data, it appeared in northern China. The founder is the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu. This teaching includes about 1500 books and treatises. It may be explained differently in different provinces.
The main idea is to follow the way of Tao, to observe its canons. It represents the path along which all events in the world take place. They obey his will and this matter prevails in all spheres of human life, the universe.
Tao - matter, it is impossible to imagine and feel. He is omnipresent and everything in the world follows his path. This philosophy includes:
Feng Shui - Some of its elements are widespread throughout the world. So, for example, Feng Shui ideas are used by designers to create an optimal and favorable environment in the house.
Astrology - Developed simultaneously with the western one.
Phytotherapy - Used in the modern world as effective remedy prevention of diseases and maintaining the general tone of the body.
Alchemy - It was a "disease" of European scientists of the Middle Ages, who were looking for a recipe for immortality and the transformation of any material into gold.
Breathing exercises - Used in meditation. Now it is gradually becoming a global trend. These techniques are used by fitness trainers, professional instructors.
Martial arts - China is famous for its martial arts. Shaolin monasteries alone are worth something! And there are legends about Shaolin monks! Only now it is difficult to determine whether they are followers of Buddhism or Taoism.
The followers of this doctrine believe in the immortality of the soul. The constant search for it is the true path of Tao. The universe is a macrocosm, and man is a microcosm. After death, the human soul joins the general flow of the macrocosm. Main principle Taoism - not to interfere in the process, but to try to merge with the universe, to feel its rhythm. The postulates of this teaching sharply contradict the idea of Confucianism. The ideal of a person, according to Taoism, is a hermit who practices meditation and ways of getting in touch with the outside world. Confucianism retains the idea of serving the ruler.
The main principle is non-intervention. Everything goes on as usual and you should not disturb the course of events with your actions. This path is true and should not meet with efforts on the part of man. A person should be inert and isolated from others, passive in actions.
It is divided into 2 schools: northern and southern.
The interaction of religion in China with the state
There is freedom of religion in China. All teachings have been preserved and today have their followers.
Politics is always closely related to religion. It is a convenient tool for managing society. During the years of the Empire, the ideas of Confucianism were actively promoted, the main principles of which were to serve the state and support the traditional system. Taoism, on the contrary, has become widespread among ordinary peasants and the working class of the population.
The Chinese empire used to rely in many aspects precisely on philosophical and religious teachings, many political decisions were made in accordance with them. Myself political system did not contradict the traditional principles.
Religion was actively used as an instrument of political struggle for influence. European missionaries and oppositionists used these contradictions for their own purposes.
Now religion is considered as an independent subject of the social, spiritual and cultural life of the state. China is a multinational country and the influence of religion on public policy is inappropriate.
Reasons for the Spread of Religion in China
There are teachings and religious cults that originated within the Celestial Empire itself. They are: Taoism, Confucianism.
Religions that came to China from outside:
Christianity
The first representatives of Christ in China were in the 7th century in the person of the Jesuit missionaries. They were representatives of the Nestorian current. Now in China there are officially: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism. When appointing a chief spiritual guide, the Chinese always listen to the opinions of international centers of Christianity.
There are about 80 million representatives of Christianity in China.
Islam
Appeared with the help of representatives of Arab spiritual preachers and merchants. The migration of some nationalities (Kazakhs, Uighurs) also laid the foundation of the Islamic religion. There is the Chinese Islamic Organization, whose goal is to preserve Islam as a traditional world religion, contact with international Islamic religious centers. There are about 26 million Muslims throughout China. Basically, the centers of Islamic culture are the Western and Southwestern provinces of China.
Buddhism
He came from the Indochinese Peninsula much earlier than others. It is more adapted and widespread among the Chinese population. In China, it acquired its own features that differ from traditional Indian Buddhism. The main followers are the Han (the largest ethnic group in China). Its basis is the achievement of the state of nirvana, obtained by long-term observance of the canons of Buddhism and spiritual practices. Obedience and self-sacrifice in the name of atonement for one's sins is the main idea of Buddhism. Here, the believer's attention is directed to the purification of consciousness from mind-distorting states, such as: anger, fear, ignorance. The presence of karma in a person obliges him to look for the right path throughout his life. The basic postulates of Buddhism contradict both the canons of Confucianism and Taoism. The geography of pilgrims is great, and covers almost all provinces of China. Buddhism has the largest army of followers.
The main reasons for the arrival of foreign religious cults in China:
- Great Silk Road
The Great Silk Road originates from two great Chinese rivers: the Yellow River and the Yangtze. It was the largest trade route in human history. With the help of it, states and entire civilizations conducted their trade. With the help of it, people could not only trade, but also transmit thoughts and ideas. So from visiting merchants, the Chinese gradually learned about other religions, rituals, and traditions.
- Migration
Sinologists suggest that the Chinese nation, according to one of the theories, arose as a result of large migration flows from outside. Accordingly, the peoples who migrated to the territory of China. Settled here and settlements. Together with this, elements of spiritual culture were brought: religion, religion, traditions, customs, language, holidays, rituals. There was continuous assimilation, as a result of which foreign beliefs were firmly entrenched in China.
- Political and historical processes
China, formerly represented for foreign countries big interest. Now China is one of the most powerful and progressive countries in the world, but before it was a tasty morsel for foreigners. China has long adhered to the policy of " closed doors and had almost no contact with the outside world. This led the state to a gradual weakening.
As early as the beginning of the 12th century, the Mongols, who claimed the territory of China, tried to introduce Nestorianism. The tribes of the Kereites, who were part of the Mongol army, were followers of Nestorianism, and were actively engaged in its preaching.
- Targeted campaigning
Consider the example of Christianity. Traveling preachers have been to the Celestial Empire more than once. New missionaries tried to introduce various religious teachings. For example, in the 7th century, representatives of Nestorian Christianity, who arrived from Persia, visited China, the first attempt was unsuccessful and did not bring the expected effect. Representatives of the Jesuit order also came here, sponsoring the active work of Christian volunteers. Their work brought a significant effect, churches began to be built in China, representatives of the clergy appeared.
Pilgrimage Centers in China.
- Buddhism
shanghai jade buddha temple
Beijing Yonghe Temple
Xi'an Big Wild Goose
Chongqing Dazu Rock Carvings
Tibetan Potala Palace
Sichuan Mount Emei
- Christianity
shanghai st ignatius cathedral
Harbin Hagia Sophia
Hong Kong Saint John's Cathedral
- Taoism
Shandong Mount Tai
Anhui Yellow Mountains
shanghai guardian goddess temple
- Islam
Xi'an mosque
Kashgar mosque Idgar
Kuchan Great Mosque
Xining Dongguan Mosque
- Confucianism
Shandong Memorial Complex
Nanjing Quarter "Temple of the Teacher"
China strongly promotes the construction of religious institutions, allowing citizens to be closer to the gods. The presence of religious sites is a definite plus in the development of tourism infrastructure and the development of pilgrimage.
Chinese religion.
It's interesting what comes to mind when talking about China. After all, they have a cult of dragon worship, and in this article they were not even discussed? Why?
It was decided to leave this question for the end.
In addition to all the above existing religions, there is another religion that existed even before the advent of philosophical teachings. Accordingly, you can safely call her herself ancient religion. It's called Shenism.
Shenism implies the worship of ancestors and spirits. It has a lot in common with traditional shamanism and polytheism in Ancient Greece. The meaning is to worship the deities, of which there are many. The composition of this religion included elements of Chinese mythology and philosophy.
The most revered deities are: Matsu and Huangdi.
Also in Shenism, a cult of worship of mythical creatures - dragons is preached. It is generally accepted that dragons are the national symbols of China. Not a single celebration takes place without his participation. Among dragons, there are both heroes and anti-heroes.
The hero lives in wonderful castles at the bottom of rivers, seas, lakes. They feed on pearls, and protect civilians from misfortunes and misfortunes. The dragon is the master of water. He patronizes the peasants during sowing, as well as during harvesting. He gives people water and the opportunity to use its gifts (fish, algae, pearls).
Antiheroes live in mountain ranges. They are trying in every possible way to interfere with the peaceful existence of the Chinese. Therefore, it was necessary in every possible way to appease him with sacrifices.
In China, good people are usually called dragons, this is the highest compliment.
There are about 500 million followers of traditional Chinese religion throughout China.
The dragon is indeed part of the Chinese culture. Festive folk costumes always have a pattern of a majestic dragon. It is a symbol of good luck and prosperity for the Chinese people.
The dragon is the main character of many myths and legends. It is truly a cultural phenomenon in China!
Religion in China
Almost half (47%*) inhabitants of modern China consider themselves atheists. More 30% consider themselves non-religious. To a large extent this is a consequence public policy during the initial period of the formation of the PRC and then during the "Cultural Revolution". However, real atheists - those who do not believe in any religions, do not celebrate religious holidays and do not observe customs, include 15% of the population. For a large part of the people of China, religion still occupies an important place in life.
*Poll of the international sociological agency WIN / Gallup International (2012). During the national census (2010), the question about religious beliefs was not asked.
According to surveys conducted at the beginning of the 21st century, about 80% the Chinese performed some rites and rituals associated with folk and, in part, with Taoist beliefs; 10-16% call themselves Buddhists; 2-4% - Christians; And 1-2% - Muslims. Many researchers question the correctness of applying the term "religion" to Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Often the terms " spiritual practices», « philosophical schools».
Folk religion in China
Over the centuries-old history of China, many religious traditions and customs have arisen here, in association they are called nfolk religion of China. As a rule, they consist in the worship of various natural, clan and national deities: ancestors, spirits, heroes. Most revered deities Matsu And huangdi.
veneration of ancestors goes into depth Chinese history, is an integral part of culture and folk religion, and also plays an important role in Confucianism. Rituals are held during the festival qingming, holiday Double Nines, their elements are present in other ceremonies: weddings, initiations, funerals. Places of ancestral worship are graves, tombs, ancestral temples or domestic shrines. Rituals take place in the form of prayers and sacrifice of food, incense, burning of candles and sacrificial paper, special ceremonial money.
Taoism
Taoism is a combination of various philosophical and religious schools that have emerged since the 6th century BC. e. The source is the treatise Dao Te Ching", attributed Lao Tzu.
Taoism focuses on issues of health, natural behavior, longevity, gaining immortality.
Taoism originated from folk religion, which is considered the lowest stage of Taoism. The main concept of religion is Dao» (Way, Universal Law). Taoist practices include breathing exercises qigong, herbal medicine, Feng Shui, alchemy, astrology, several types of martial arts. There are many schools, sects and offshoots of Taoism in China. There are two main schools: Northern (Quanzhen School of Perfect Truth) and South ( Zhengidao School of True Oneness).
Buddhism
Buddhism appeared in China during the Han Dynasty, in the 1st century AD. e. By the 9th century, this teaching, having adopted many ideas from Chinese philosophy, took root in the country, becoming widely spread among the common people. There were three main branches: Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism(Lamaism) and Pali Buddhism.
Confucianism
Confucianism is understood as an ethical and philosophical doctrine, the foundations of which were laid by Confucius . The basic principle of the doctrine was harmony, unity. Each person should know their duties and rights, fulfill their duty to the country and show respect for their ancestors. It is interesting that the people of China call this concept "the school of learned scribes" or simply "the school of scientists."
Religions in China in modern times
In 1950, the Communist Party issued a directive to government officials in all regions and provinces, requiring them to impose a ban on religious organizations And public formations. The authorities participated in disbanding organizations of Christians, Taoists, Buddhists, etc., requiring their members to register and repent in order to become new people. If organizations did not register on time, then after the discovery of a violation, they were subjected to severe punishment. In 1951, harsh regulations were passed against those who continued to conduct religious activities.
In 1978, the PRC adopted a constitution that is still relevant today. Article 36 states that every citizen has the right to freedom of religion. After the reforms that began in the 1980s, the traditional religions of Buddhism and Taoism are officially supported as integral elements of Chinese culture.
China is a country with an amazing culture that dates back several millennia. But not only culture is amazing here, but also religion and philosophy. Even today, the religion of ancient China continues to flourish and resonate with modern directions culture and art.
Briefly about culture
The culture of the Celestial Empire reached a special flourishing during the formation of the empire, during the reign of the Han. Even then, Ancient China began to enrich the world with new inventions. Thanks to him, the world heritage was enriched with such important inventions as the compass, seismograph, speedometer, porcelain, gunpowder, and, well, toilet paper which first appeared in China.
It was here that nautical devices, guns and stirrups were invented, mechanical watches, drive belt and chain drive. Chinese scientists were the first to use decimals, learned how to calculate the circumference of a circle, discovered a method for solving equations with several unknowns.
The ancient Chinese were literate astronomers. They were the first to learn how to calculate eclipse dates and compiled the world's first catalog of stars. In ancient China, the first manual on pharmacology was written, doctors performed operations using narcotic drugs as anesthesia.
spiritual culture
As for the spiritual development of China, they were conditioned by the so-called "Chinese ceremonies" - stereotypical norms of behavior that were clearly fixed in ethics. These rules were formulated in ancient times, long before the construction of the Great Wall of China began.
Spirituality among the ancient Chinese was a rather specific phenomenon: the exaggerated importance of ethical and ritual values led to the fact that religion as such in China was replaced by philosophy. That is why many are confused by the question: "What religion was in Ancient China?" Indeed, try, immediately remember all these directions ... Yes, and they can hardly be called beliefs. The standard cult of the gods here is replaced by the cult of ancestors, and those gods that have survived have turned into abstract deity-symbols, without likening to a person. For example, Heaven, Tao, Heaven, etc.
Philosophy
It will not work to talk briefly about the religion of Ancient China, there are too many nuances in this matter. Take, for example, mythology. The Chinese replaced myths popular with other peoples with legends about wise rulers (based, by the way, on real facts). Also in China there were no priests, personified gods and temples in their honor. The functions of the priests were performed by officials, the highest deities were the deceased ancestors and spirits, who personified the forces of nature.
Communication with spirits and ancestors was accompanied by special rituals, which were always arranged with special care, since they were a matter of national importance. Any religious idea had a high level of philosophical abstraction. In the religion of Ancient China, there was an idea of the Higher Beginning, which was given the name Tien (Sky), in rare cases Shang-Di (Lord). True, these principles were perceived as a kind of supreme and strict generality. This universality could not be loved, imitated, and there was little point in admiring it. It was believed that Heaven punishes the wicked and rewards the obedient. This is the personification of the Higher Mind, therefore the emperors of Ancient China bore the proud title of "son of Heaven" and were under his direct patronage. True, they could rule the Celestial Empire as long as they retained virtue. Having lost her, the emperor had no right to remain in power.
Another principle of the religion of Ancient China is the division of the whole world into yin and yang. Each such concept had many meanings, but first of all, yang personified the masculine principle, and yin - the feminine.
Yang was associated with something bright, light, solid and strong, that is, with some positive qualities. Yin was personified with the Moon, or rather with its dark side and other gloomy beginnings. Both of these forces are closely related to each other, as a result of interaction, the entire visible Universe was created.
Lao Tzu
In the philosophy and religion of ancient China, such a direction as Taoism was the first to appear. This concept included the concepts of Justice, Universal Law and Supreme Truth. The philosopher Lao Tzu is considered to be its founder, but since no reliable information about him has been preserved biographical information He is considered a legendary figure.
As one ancient Chinese historian Sim Qian wrote, Laozi was born in the kingdom of Chu, for a long time he performed the work of protecting the archives at the royal court, but, seeing how public morals were falling, he resigned and left for the West. How did it further fate- unknown.
The only thing left of him is the composition "Tao-te Ching", which he left to the caretaker of the border outpost. It marked the beginning of a rethinking of the religion of ancient China. In short, in this small philosophical treatise, the basic principles of Taoism were collected, which have not changed even today.
Great Tao
At the center of Lao Tzu's teaching is such a thing as Tao, however, it is impossible to give an unambiguous definition to it. Literally translated, the word "Tao" means "The Way", but only in Chinese it also received such a meaning as "logos". This concept meant rules, orders, meanings, laws and spiritual entities.
Tao is the source of everything. An incorporeal, vague and indefinite something that is a spiritual principle that cannot be comprehended physically.
All visible and tangible being is much lower than the spiritual and ephemeral Tao. Lao Tzu even dared to call Tao non-existence, because it does not exist like mountains or rivers. His reality is not at all the same as the earthly, sensual. And therefore, the comprehension of Tao should become the meaning of life, this is one of the features of the religion of Ancient China.
Lord of the Deities
In the second century AD, the followers of Laozi began to deify him and perceived him as the personification of the true Tao. Over time, the ordinary man Laozi turned into the highest Taoist deity. He was known as the Supreme Lord Lao, or the Yellow Lord Lao.
At the end of the second century, the "Book of the Transformations of Lao Tzu" appeared in China. Here he is spoken of as a being that appeared before the creation of the universe. In this treatise, Laozi was called the Root of Heaven and Earth, the Lord of the deities, the Forefather of yin-yang, etc.
In the culture and religion of ancient China, Laozi was considered the source and lifeblood of all things. He reincarnated internally 9 times and externally changed the same number of times. A couple of times he appeared in the guise of advisers to the rulers of Antiquity.
Confucius
The main religions of ancient China developed largely thanks to Confucius. It was he who opened the era in which the foundations of modern Chinese culture were laid. It is difficult to call him the founder of religion, although his name is mentioned on a par with the names of Zoroaster and Buddha, but questions of faith occupied little space in his ideology.
Also, in his appearance there was nothing from a non-human being, and in the stories he was mentioned as an ordinary person without any mythical additions.
They write about him as a simple and outrageously prosaic person. And yet he managed to enter the annals of history, leaving his imprint not only on culture, but also on the spirit of the whole country. His authority remained unshakable, and there were reasons for that. Confucius lived in an era when China occupied an insignificant part of the modern territory of the Celestial Empire, this was during the reign of Zhou (about 250 BC). At that time, the emperor, who bore the title of the son of Heaven, was an authoritative person, but did not have power as such. He performed exclusively ritual functions.
Teacher
Confucius became famous for his scholarship, because of which he was close to the emperor. The philosopher constantly improved his knowledge, did not miss a single reception at the palace, systematized Zhou ritual dances, folk songs, compiled and edited historical manuscripts.
After Confucius was 40 years old, he decided that he had the moral right to teach others, and began to recruit students for himself. He did not distinguish by origin, although this did not mean that everyone could become his disciple.
Great Instructions
Confucius gave instructions only to those who, having discovered their ignorance, sought knowledge. Such classes did not bring much income, but the fame of the teacher grew, many of his students began to occupy enviable government posts. So the number of people willing to learn from Confucius grew every year.
The great philosopher was not concerned about the issues of immortality, the meaning of life and God. Confucius always paid great attention to daily rituals. It is from his submission that today in China there are 300 rituals and 3000 rules of decency. For Confucius, the main thing was to find a way to the peaceful prosperity of society; he did not deny the higher principle, but considered it distant and abstract. The teachings of Confucius became the foundation for the development of Chinese culture, as they dealt with man and human relations. Today, Confucius is considered the nation's greatest sage.
Zhang Daolin and Taoism
As already mentioned, the philosophy of Lao Tzu influenced all spheres of culture and formed the basis of a new religion - Taoism. True, this happened several centuries after the death of the founder of the Tao.
The direction of Taoism began to develop the preacher Zhang Daolin. This religion is complex and multifaceted. It is based on the belief that the world is completely inhabited by countless good and evil spirits. You can gain power over them if you know the name of the spirit and perform the necessary ritual.
Immortality
The doctrine of immortality is considered the central doctrine of Taoism. In short, in the mythology and religion of ancient China there was no doctrine of immortality. Only in Taoism did the first mention of this issue appear. It was believed that a person has two souls: material and spiritual. The followers of the current believed that after death the spiritual component of a person turns into a spirit and continues to exist after the body dies, and then dissolves into the sky.
As for the physical component, she became a "demon", and after a while she went into the world of shadows. There, her ephemeral existence could be sustained by the sacrifices of her descendants. Otherwise, it will dissolve in the earth's pneuma.
The body was considered the only thread that tied these souls together. Death led to the fact that they were disconnected and died - one earlier, the other later.
The Chinese were not talking about some gloomy afterlife, but about the infinite extension of physical existence. Taoists believed that the physical body is a microcosm that needs to be turned into a macrocosm, similar to the universe.
Deities in Ancient China
Somewhat later, Buddhism began to penetrate into the religion of Ancient China, and the Taoists turned out to be the most receptive to the new teaching, having borrowed many Buddhist motifs.
After some time, the Taoist pantheon of spirits and deities appeared. Of course, the founder of the Tao, Lao Tzu, stood in a place of honor. The cult of saints became widespread. Famous historical figures and virtuous officials were ranked among him. The following were considered deities: the legendary emperor Huangdi, the goddess of the West Sivanmu, the first man Pangu, the deities of the Great Beginning and the Great Limit.
In honor of these deities, temples were built, where the corresponding idols were exhibited, and the people of China brought offerings to them.
Art and culture
Evidence of the relationship between traditional religions and art in ancient China can be found in literature, architecture and fine arts. For the most part, they developed under the influence of religious and ethical-philosophical knowledge. This applies to the teachings of Confucius and Buddhism, which penetrated the territory of the country.
Buddhism existed in China for about two thousand years, of course, it changed markedly while adapting to the specific Chinese civilization. On the basis of Buddhism and Confucian pragmatism, the religious thought of Chan Buddhism arose, later it came to its modern, completed form - Zen Buddhism. The Chinese never adopted the Indian Buddha image, creating their own. Pagodas are the same way.
If we talk briefly about the culture and religion of Ancient China, we can draw the following conclusions: religion in an ancient era was distinguished by special rationalism and pragmatism. This trend is still present today. Instead of fictional deities, Chinese religion has real ones. historical figures, philosophical treatises act as dogmas here, and instead of shamanic rituals, 3000 rules of decency are used.
3.1. Religion of Ancient China (Taoism, Confucianism)
The religious beliefs of the ancient Chinese differed markedly from those religious systems that were created by representatives of the Indo-European peoples in the Middle East and Europe. Other natural conditions, a different type of social structure and, accordingly, a completely different type of thinking gave rise to peculiar forms of religion in China, the most famous of which were Taoism And Confucianism.
As far as can be judged from the surviving sources, the emergence of religious ideas in ancient China took place as early as the 3rd millennium BC. e. and they manifested themselves in the form of various branches mantiks(fortune telling) and cult of ancestors. The most common type of divination was to write a question, which required a divine answer, on a tortoise shell plate and throw this plate into the fire. After the fire burned out, a special priest interpreted the cracks formed on the plate, what answer the deity had given. Subsequently, this method formed the basis of the divination technique, which consisted of a combination of solid and broken lines and set forth in the book I-ching.
The cult of ancestors, although it is present in almost all world religions, but it was in China that its significance turned out to be so high that the existence of this cult left its mark on the entire daily life and system of ethical norms of the ancient Chinese. The origins of this cult are closely connected with the worship of Heaven, which was considered the supreme and, perhaps, the only deity in the Chinese religion. Heaven was an absolute law, so detached and indifferent to a person observing or not observing it that it was simply pointless to show any respect towards him. The only way to prove one's obedience to this absolute law was to show unquestioning obedience and reverence towards the Chinese emperor, who was considered the Son of Heaven and his manifestation on earth. The cult of the emperor and his deified ancestors, endless row which ascended directly to Heaven itself, gradually transformed into the cult of ancestors, which was in use both among aristocrats and among ordinary inhabitants of the empire. Particular attention was paid to the closeness of these ancestors, and even better kinship with the imperial house, since any contact with the Heavenly dynasty made it possible to get closer to Heaven itself.
According to the ideas of the Chinese, the human soul consists of two parts - material and spiritual. The material part of the soul after the death of a person is buried along with his body, so the sign of caring for it is the burial of his most devoted servants, the best horses and most of the wealth along with the deceased. But the other part of the soul - the spiritual one - goes to heaven, where it occupies its proper place, determined by the status of its owner in the earthly hierarchy. The way to support this part of the soul was the construction of special ancestral temples, in which tablets with the names of all the ancestors of this or that aristocrat were kept. The preservation of the memory of the deceased ancestors made it possible both to support their souls in the afterlife, and to substantiate the aristocrat's claims to a certain place in the social hierarchy in the earthly world, which makes it possible to lead less noble relatives and simple peasants.
Taoism. Characteristic Features of Chinese Religion early period- the focus on ethical norms and the place of a person within the framework of society - were also preserved in Taoism, although they acquired a metaphysical coloring. The founder of Taoism in the VI century. BC e., according to legend, became Lao Tzu (his name literally means "Old Child" or "Old Philosopher"), whose existence, unlike his contemporary Confucius, remains unconfirmed by any documents. It is Lao Tzu who is credited with the authorship of the fundamental Taoist treatise, the Tao Te Ching, although modern scholars prefer to date its origin to the 3rd century BC. BC e., without denying, however, that the provisions expressed in it could exist in the form of an oral tradition or disparate sayings.
The key category of Taoism is Tao - that natural path to which all things in the world follow and to which the world itself obeys. Inaccessible to the senses, not grasped by human thinking, it underlies everything, shaping and giving meaning to each specific thing. The projection of the Tao onto the human world is de - a moral law that establishes the norms of relationships between people and the rules of people's attitude to the world around them. The third fundamental category of Taoism is qi - universal vital energy that fills a person and gives him the will to observe the universal law - to follow the great path of Tao.
The goal of human life, from the point of view of Taoism, is the introduction of an individual person to the Tao. This can be achieved not only through meditation and mental cutting off everything perishable, which only expresses the will of Tao, but is not Tao itself. Since Tao has no end and no beginning, a person can join it through the achievement of immortality. For this, there were special exercises: first, those who wanted to achieve immortality had to gradually refuse food intake and reduce the amount of food itself until they learned to feed on their own saliva. Then it was necessary to move on to a complex of physical exercises, which is very similar to yoga, designed not to strengthen the body, but to master breathing exercises to such an extent that the Taoist could stop breathing at will, and then resume it at the right moment. Of course, the condition under which a person who has learned to master own body, could achieve immortality, there is also spiritual purification: following the path of Tao, he had to perform 1200 good deeds, and the only unseemly deed reduced all accumulated merits to nothing.
The Taoist doctrine of immortality and the achievement of bliss by following the universal law of nature had a place in the ranks of the Chinese aristocracy, retaining its influence throughout the Middle Ages. In the VI-VII centuries. Taoists extended their influence to almost all of China, building a network of monasteries and getting along well with Confucianism. The share of the latter accounted for the substantiation of the social doctrine by which every Chinese was to be guided. Paradoxical as it may seem, but Taoism, which appealed to the soul of every person and urged to take care of moral purity, was in demand whenever the Chinese state was subjected to sharp social upheavals. Several large-scale uprisings, starting from the rebellion of the "yellow bands" in the III century, were raised by adherents of Taoism under the slogans of cleansing the state from filth and returning to its roots. In the XX century. Taoism has been tested: its spiritual head (tian-shi) in 1927 he was forced to flee his residence to Taiwan, but the religion managed to maintain a significant influence on ordinary Chinese even under the communist regime.
Confucianism. Another religion that managed to prove its relevance under any ruler and political system was Confucianism, which so permeated Chinese society that even the leaders of communist China were forced to appeal to the moral and social norms that were developed by Confucius and his followers. Confucius (551-479 BC) is a real historical character who lived and acted in a difficult period for China, when the state was on the verge of collapse, and the ruling elite was unable to find the right way to save the country. Under these conditions, the religious and philosophical doctrine of Confucius, which combined ethical and social elements into an inseparable integrity, was picked up by a wide circle of the population, acquiring the status of a new state religion.
The sacred texts of Confucianism are fixed within the framework of two canons, called the "Pentateuch" (Wu-jing) and the "Tetrabook" (Su-shu). The composition of the "Pentateuch" includes the following works: "I-ching" - a book of divination by solid and broken lines, as well as magic conspiracies; "Shu-ching" - a mythologized story ancient China; "Chun-qiu" is another brief historical excursus from the history of China in the period of the 8th-5th centuries. BC e.; "Shi-jing" - a collection of ancient hymns and chants, partly religious, partly purely poetic content; "Lu-ji" is a description of rituals and ceremonies, the exact execution of which is mandatory for an adherent of the Confucian teachings.
"Tetrabook" includes "Da-Xue" - summary the main provisions of Confucian teachings; "Lun-Yu" - a collection of sayings, the authorship of which is attributed to Confucius himself; Zhong-Yun is a philosophical treatise that examines in detail the idea of Confucius about observing the principle of the “golden mean” in all undertakings; Mencius is a retelling of the teachings of one of the main disciples of the founder of Confucianism.
Any person who wants to remain a worthy member of society and at the same time be a highly moral person must follow two basic Confucian principles: “ren” (humanity) and “yi” (duty). The understanding of humanity was spread by Confucius extremely widely and included whole line human qualities, such as justice, philanthropy, integrity, peacefulness, etc. Duty is a moral obligation that a person striving to be virtuous imposes on himself. The concept of duty includes a respectful attitude towards parents, and unconditional devotion to the ruler, and the preservation of marital fidelity.
Unlike many religions that sought to break with the previous tradition in order to favorably set off their moral and social norms, Confucianism relied on the restoration of traditions. Given the traditional focus of the Chinese on the past, where the “golden age” once existed, Confucius and his followers claimed to embody in their works the rules that would allow turning back time, returning humanity to its original state. Confucius expressed his ideal of returning to the past at the moment when it was the only way to rally Chinese society and give it new strength in the face of the threat of internal collapse or external conquest. His followers, who tried to be guided by the letter rather than the spirit of Confucian teaching, turned the recommendations he preached into universal laws, a set of rules, the automatic observance of which can ensure a happy existence for a person. Hence the focus of Confucianism on the ritual, the scrupulous fulfillment of the smallest instructions, the refusal to change even individual movements in the ceremonies performed, so as not to deviate from the path of salvation outlined by the Teacher.
Confucianism not only did not seek to turn its adherents away from the state in which they happened to live, but also directly indicated that even high level wisdom, a person should not give up his social activities, from life in society, among friends and close relatives. This circumstance served the Confucian religion in good stead, having done it by the 2nd century BC. BC e. the official religion of Chinese society. The desire to translate the ethical ideals proclaimed by Confucianism into practice led to the fact that Chinese officials, in order to get into public office, had to pass a mandatory exam, demonstrating not so much the knowledge of the subject as his moral qualities and all-round development. According to the precepts of Confucius only moral person can hold a public post, since it is precisely with such an official that the duty (“and”) will be stronger than the natural feeling for profit.
Confucian teachings have been the intellectual backbone of Chinese society for several millennia. In medieval China, the education system, built on Confucian principles, was mandatory for all representatives. state power, although the sole power over the consciousness of each specific person Confucianism did not claim, dividing it with Taoism and Buddhism. The desire to update the teachings of Confucius, give it new energy and individualize to the utmost, bring it to human consciousness became the leading stimulus for the Chinese thinker Zhu Xi (1130-1200), who was the founder neo-Confucianism. The principle he proclaimed xin xue, used certain provisions of the Buddhist doctrine to update traditional Confucianism, was popular in Chinese society until the beginning of the 20th century. In the 19th century It was Confucianism that became the basis for the formation of Chinese conservatism, which asserted unconditional adherence to the principles on which Chinese society was based from the time of its inception, and accordingly rejected any borrowings and changes in the Western manner. As a result of the revolution of 1911, the dominant role of Confucianism as the official Chinese religion was shaken, but Confucianism finally lost its official status after the communists came to power.
However, this religion would not be so viable if it so easily lost its influence during periods of social upheaval. Despite the fact that officially in modern China there is no state religion, since it is replaced by the ideology communist party, among ordinary people, Confucianism retained its influence. Behind the scenes, it is present in the intellectual and religious atmosphere of modern China, demonstrating once again its ability to appeal not to changing social factors, but to permanent human nature.
The first manifestations of civilization in China are usually attributed to the XIV century. BC. This is the beginning of the Shang (Yin) era. Then there was the state of Yin in the middle reaches of the river. Huanghe. The state was headed by the hereditary monarch Wang, already a property stratification, the beginnings of slavery, but the remnants of primitive communal relations were preserved. Then appeared moon calendar. The primitive religion as a cult of nature and the cult of ancestors began to transform into a systemic religion.
Each community had its own deity - Fandi, who was the patron and ancestor of the community, he supported the fertility of the land and the fertility of livestock. local deities led supreme god Shanly. The trenches made sacrifices to their gods and ancestors, including human sacrifices, by men from the captives (women were left alive as labor force). Human sacrifices were massive. In the Shan era, the idea of Heaven as the supreme being, the owner of everything that exists, arises.
In the XI century. BC. The state of Yin conquered the people of Zhou.
The Zhou era lasted from the 11th century. BC. Debt slavery has already appeared here, but the basis of social slavery was created by free community members, who received land from Van. The state consisted of separate kingdoms, which gradually gained independence and fought among themselves. By the end of the era, private ownership of land was established. The technology of cultivating the land improved significantly, handicrafts were established, and trade flourished. At this time, a particular ancient religion is produced.
In the Chou people there was the goddess Foremother from the genus of the Baran - Jian Yuan, then her place was taken by the Ruler-Millet ("Volodar-Grain").
When, as a result of the conquest of the state of Yin and a number of neighboring tribes, the state of Zhou was formed, a cult intertribal union arose in which they worshiped the joint god Gun.
Subsequently, an even more influential state with the same name Zhou grows up within the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River.
The cult of "The Supremacy of the Deity" - Heaven, appeared in it, and the Zhou became the "Son of Heaven" - Tian-tzu.
In the 8th century BC. the center of the state of Zhou moves to the east. Eastern Zhou is a period of existence of a number of fragmented independent states, there were about two hundred of them. About a dozen of their most significant, including the Eastern Zhou, formed the core of the state, which the historical tradition considered the "central kingdoms" of the Universe (Celestial Universe - Zhong Guo).
Among the large number of the kingdom of Zhong Guo, Eastern Zhou played the role of a cult center, and the Zhou baths became nominal rulers. Religion in this period remained a cult of nature and a cult of ancestors, especially royal ones.
From the 5th century BC. and to the III century. BC. the period of "kingdoms waging war" continues. The kingdoms of Qi, Chu, Qin, Jin, Han, Sui, Wu, Yue, Lu and others are fighting for dominance one over the other.
It was at this time that the main philosophical and religious schools of China appeared, and the first of them was Confucianism.
But before presenting the history and essence of Confucianism, let us briefly consider the content and forms of the religion of ancient China.
From disparate religious ideas in the Zhou era, religion was systematized to a certain extent. IN end of XIX V. Iyibulo was given the name of the ancient state religion, or Sinism. But this name did not take root in Sinology, the religion of the ancient Chinese remained without a name, so let it be with us.
ancient chinese religion
As in any religion, in the ancient Chinese religion we find primarily animistic ideas associated with the personification of natural and social forces. They found themselves in adoration of the sky, various spirits and souls of their ancestors.
Sky (Tian, Tian, Te) is the main Chinese deity. This is not the spirit of the sky, not some kind of power, but the most living sky, above us, it sees everything, knows everything, everything belongs to it, it directs everything. It is the Supreme Ruler, a material object to be adored, not a supreme being.
The ancient Chinese did not put any views into understanding their deity of the sky. This is pure worship of the forces of nature.
The sky does not give revelation, miracles, divine intervention in the actions of nature and man. But fate, Ming, is different for everyone and becomes known only when it is realized. The sky can express its attitude to nature, to people because of the weather, natural phenomena, it can declare the loss of harmony between them and the earth. Then the emperor's business is to make a sacrifice, to regulate relations. If heaven is angry with the emperor, then he must be replaced.
The ancient Chinese idea of spirits (Shan) is already animism. There are a great many Spirits, they are connected with the objects of nature, each of them has its own Spirit. They exist together as a kind of corporation, and they should be addressed not alone, but all together. Since they personify specific things (mountains, rivers, fields, heavenly bodies, natural phenomena, etc.), their existence is territorially limited. The cult according to them is no longer carried out by the emperor, but by the local ruler.
Spirits exist under Heaven, are subject to it, but do not represent it. They are all good, there are no evil spirits. Evil does not come from evil spirits, but from the lack of good will of good spirits.
The cult of spirits was served by borrowed from primitive religion shamanism. Shamans were experts in dealing with spirits, they knew when, where and how to make sacrifices to them, how to invite them for help and how to prevent evil. The existence and authority of the spirits were supported by what the shamans knew traditional medicine, physiology and psychology of clients.
The cult of ancestors was the most entrenched. The ancient Chinese believed in the existence of a person's soul after his death. This is not a belief in personal immortality. It was the idea of procreation as an eternal value.
The Chinese idea of the other world retained the features of primitive ideas about it. The other world was a natural continuation of earthly life. The dead man did not die completely. He demanded food and care in accordance with the status that he occupied in earthly life. He had to be taken care of as if he were alive, replacing real things and forms of guardianship with appropriate symbolic ones. This and. was supposed to serve as a cult of ancestors. Therefore, in ancient Chinese animism, there is no idea of otherworldly retribution, the idea of hell and paradise. The Chinese fear not a future execution, but the condemning thought of the ancestral spirits to whom he is responsible. His current fate, real life, depends on his ancestors. And one cannot be indifferent to this.
That is why each house had its own chapel or chapel with tablets on which the names of the ancestors were written. When a family gathers, the spirits of the ancestors are also present. Then the spirits of the ancestors are sacrificed - direct or symbolic. Family members consume the food, and the spirits of the ancestors consume the sacrifice. In honor of the ancestors, speeches are made, in spells they express their requests or gratitude for help, and the like. Such a cult has only a family character, it is carried out only by a husband and wife. Therefore, marriage is a religious act, it opens up the possibility of ancestor worship.
Honors his ancestors and the emperor. And this respect already has not only a family, but also a social character, the Emperor makes sacrifices to his ancestors and all predecessors on the throne. They help not only him alone and his family, but the whole country as a whole, all the people. Hence their significance, scale, publicity.
Cult traditions arose in ancient China. Sacrifices were made to Heaven, spirits and ancestors on various occasions, even in the event of a change in the weather. These sacrifices were made not for ransom, but out of gratitude and devotion. There is nothing ascetic about Chinese rituals. Rites are often accompanied by music. The victims are animals, plants, household items - it all depends on the reason for the sacrifice, on what is asked. The petitioner himself, the head of the family, makes sacrifices, there are no specialists in sacrifices. But everything must comply with the ritual, nothing can be rejected or simplified. In the eyes of the Chinese, sacrifice is the sum total of relationships with the supernatural, and nothing can be neglected here.
The ancient Chinese religion was a significant flourishing of traditional magic: magicians, soothsayers, fortune-tellers, connoisseurs of the recipes of miraculous elixirs, specialists from good and evil, love and hate, life and death had unlimited scope for their activities. The magic of achieving immortality gained a special scope. The search for the elixir of immortality was encouraged by almost all emperors of all dynasties. Why not make the wonderful imperial life limitless, in which for the Son of Heaven there was never, nowhere, anything denied? The inaccessibility of this dream is obvious. But these searches stimulated the creation of significant pharmaceutical discoveries for ancient Chinese medicine.
So, the ancient Chinese religion, directly born from the primitive religion of their ancestors, followed the usual path for all religions: turning the original personification of nature and society into polytheism, combining elementary fetishistic and magical techniques and actions into a religious cult. The statement that the ancient Chinese worshiped Shandi - the First Sovereign, outstanding from all spirits, and even with a hint that the ancient Chinese under Shandi understood the One God, can hardly be considered justified.
