The national policy of Alexander 1 briefly. Alexander I. Domestic and foreign policy
Domestic policy. In March 1801, as a result of a palace coup, Paul I was assassinated. His son Alexander I (1801–1825) ascended the throne. Like his grandmother Catherine II, Alexander sought to be guided in his activities by the ideas of "enlightened absolutism." He canceled many decrees of Paul I, returned to the nobles the privileges of the Charter to the nobility. From the closest associates of the young emperor, an Unspoken Committee was created, which included P. A. Stroganov, N. N. Novosiltsev, V. P. Kochubey, A. A. Czartorysky. With them, Alexander shared his plans for the future structure of Russia. M. M. Speransky was also involved in the affairs of the committee. Under Alexander I, the Permanent (Permanent) Council, established in 1801, officially acted as the highest advisory body.
Reforms of Alexander I. The Committee developed the foundations for reforms in various spheres of public life. In 1802 the colleges were replaced by ministries. The Committee of Ministers under the leadership of the tsar, and later A. A. Arakcheev, coordinated the affairs of the ministries and acted as an advisory body. The ministers reported directly to the emperor and received orders from him on critical issues. Initially, 8 ministries were formed: military, maritime, internal affairs, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. The Senate, which existed since the time of Peter I, became the highest control and judicial institution. In 1810, at the suggestion of Speransky, the State Council was approved - a body consisting of senior dignitaries, whose functions included making legislative proposals. Speransky also proposed the creation of the State Duma and local dumas as representative bodies, but these proposals were opposed by the nobility. Speransky's project was not implemented, and he himself was sent into exile and returned to St. Petersburg only in 1821.
Alexander I in 1801 allowed non-nobles to buy land to cultivate it by hired labor. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", allowing the landowners to free their serfs and allocate them with land. The results of this decree were insignificant. In 1808–1809 it was forbidden to sell peasants and exile them at the will of the landowner, which was not actually carried out.
The reforms affected the education sector. The Ministry of Public Education was created, the country was divided into educational districts.
Continuity was introduced between schools of various levels - parish, district schools, gymnasiums, universities. According to the charter of 1804, the universities received significant autonomy: the right to choose rectors and professors, to independently decide their own affairs. In 1804, a fairly liberal censorship charter was also issued.
The reign of Alexander I was characterized by the widest religious tolerance.
Foreign policy. Its main directions are European and Middle Eastern. The war with France (1805–1807) was waged by Russia as part of the III anti-French coalition (allies Great Britain, Austria, Sweden), which broke up in 1805, and the IV anti-Napoleonic coalition in alliance with England, Prussia and Sweden. During the war, battles took place at Austerlitz (1805), at Preussisch-Eylau, and at Friedland (1807). As a result of the war, the Treaty of Tilsit was signed, according to which Russia was forced to join the continental blockade (trade blockade) of England, which did not meet the economic interests of Russia.
The war with Persia (Iran) (1804–1813) ended in the defeat of Persia. According to the Gulistan peace treaty, Russia received the lands of Northern Azerbaijan and part of Dagestan.
The war between Russia and Turkey (1806–1812), caused by the closing of the Black Sea straits by the Turks for Russian ships, ended in defeat Ottoman Empire. M. I. Kutuzov forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Bucharest, according to which Russia received the territory of Bessarabia (the eastern part of Moldova).
As a result of the war with Sweden (1808–1809), Russia received the territory of Finland. Alexander I introduced a constitution in Finland, giving it autonomy.
In 1801 Eastern Georgia voluntarily became part of Russia. In 1803 Mingrelia was conquered. In 1804, Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. During the Russian-Iranian war of 1805, Karabakh and Shirvan were conquered. In 1806, Ossetia was voluntarily annexed.
Patriotic War of 1812
The peace that came after the conclusion of the Treaty of Tilsit turned out to be fragile. Napoleon sought to undermine the power of Russia, which stood in his way to world domination. On June 12 (24), 1812, almost 420,000-strong French army, which included representatives of the conquered countries of Europe, crossed the Neman River and invaded Russia. The Patriotic War began. Russia could oppose an approximately 210,000-strong army, divided into three unrelated armies: M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration and A. P. Tormasov. Napoleon's plan was to crush the Russian armies piecemeal with a powerful concentrated blow. Russian forces did not accept the border battle and retreated. In early August, the Russian armies united near Smolensk, but continued to retreat.
Due to the failures of the first weeks of the war and under the pressure of public opinion, M. I. Kutuzov was appointed commander in chief. In the Battle of Borodino on August 26 (September 7), 1812, the Russian troops were tasked with weakening the enemy, and Napoleon expected to defeat the Russian army and end the war. Losses on both sides were heavy. Russian troops retreated to Moscow. In order to save the army, Kutuzov at the military council in Fili decided to surrender the city to the enemy in early September. Russian troops withdrew to Tarutino, having made the famous Tarutino maneuver, where they received rest and prepared for the continuation of the war. At the same time, the French army in burning Moscow was losing its combat effectiveness, turning into a horde of marauders.
From the first days of the war, the people rose up against the invaders. Partisan detachments were created from regular army units and from the people. Army detachments were led by D. Davydov, A. Seslavin, A. Figner, I. Dorokhov and other officers. Gerasim Kurin, Yermolai Chetvertakov, Vasilisa Kozhina and others advanced from the people. The partisans acted on all roads leading to Moscow, intercepting French food and fodder expeditions.
In early October, after staying in Moscow for 35 days, Napoleon left the city, heading south. On October 12, 1812, a battle took place near Maloyaroslavets, and the enemy withdrew to the old Smolensk road. Kutuzov used the tactics of parallel pursuit, combining the actions of the army and partisans, preventing the French from moving away from the Smolensk road they had plundered. November 16 during the battle on the river. Berezina, the Napoleonic army was finally destroyed. Napoleon abandoned the remnants of the army and fled to Paris to gain new strength. On December 25, the war ended.
Foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813–1814. At the beginning of 1813, Russian troops crossed the Neman and entered the territory of Europe. The anti-Napoleonic coalition was restored, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, England and Sweden. In October 1813, in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig, Napoleon was defeated. In March 1814 Russian troops entered Paris.
According to the results Napoleonic Wars The Vienna Congress of Representatives of European Countries (1814–1815) took place. By his decisions, France was returned to its former borders. Russia received part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital. In 1815, at the suggestion of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance was created to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe.
The last years of the reign of Alexander I and the uprising of the Decembrists
This period in the history of Russia was called "Arakcheevshchina". After the war, the leadership of the country actually passed into the hands of the Minister of War, General A. A. Arakcheev. One of the main results of his activities is the introduction of military settlements. Part of the army was settled in villages, and the peasants of these villages were turned into soldiers and forced to combine military service with agricultural labor. In addition to the creation of military settlements, other activities were carried out. For example, the best professors were expelled from universities, some were put on trial for freethinking. At the same time, the tsar granted a constitution to Poland, abolished serfdom in the Baltic. Projects for the liberation of the peasants were developed - one of the projects was prepared by Arakcheev, but its implementation in practice would have dragged on for 200 years. On behalf of the tsar, N.N. Novosiltsev developed a draft constitution for Russia in deep secrecy, but the emperor did not consider it possible to implement it.
The transition to reaction caused discontent among the most advanced people in the country. In 1816, a secret organization "Union of Salvation" was created in St. Petersburg, consisting of 30 officers. The main goal of the society was the establishment of a constitution in Russia and the abolition of serfdom. The "Union of Salvation" was a deeply conspiratorial secret society, an active role in which was played by A. N. Muravyov, P. I. Pestel, brothers M. I. and S. I. Muravyov-Apostles, I. D. Yakushkin, M. S. Lunin. In 1818, on the basis of the Union of Salvation, a broader organization arose - the Union of Welfare, which had branches in different cities, which created the literary society "Green Lamp" to form public opinion. The young A. S. Pushkin took part in it. In 1821, at a secret congress, a decision was made to dissolve the Union of Welfare. In 1821–1822 two separate organizations have been established. The "Northern Society" arose in St. Petersburg, headed by N. M. Muravyov. Since 1823, the leadership passed to K. F. Ryleev. In Ukraine, P. I. Pestel headed " Southern society”And compiled the program“ Russian Truth ”. According to it, after the overthrow of tsarism, a republican form of government should be introduced in Russia, the peasants became free and received land free of charge, and the equality of all before the law was declared. N. M. Muravyov in the "Northern Society" came up with the "Constitution" program, according to which a constitutional monarchy should be established in Russia, the peasants were freed without land.
The performance was scheduled for 1826, but in November 1825 Alexander I died suddenly. The throne was to go to his brother Konstantin, who secretly abdicated back in 1823. Due to the ambiguity of the question of the heir to the throne, an interregnum began. Members of the "Northern Society" decided to take advantage of this. The conspirators hoped to seize the Winter Palace, arrest the royal family, destroy the former government, abolish serfdom, and establish civil liberties. The speech was scheduled for December 14, 1825, but it was too late. On this day, Tsar Nicholas I took the oath of the Senate and guard units early in the morning. The rebels, coming out on Senate Square Petersburg, were confused and remained inactive. By evening, Nikolai decided to use artillery. After a few shots, the rebels dispersed. December 29, 1825 - January 3, 1826, under the leadership of the "Southern Society", the performance of the Chernigov regiment in Ukraine was organized, which also ended in defeat. After the investigation, five of the Decembrists (P. I. Pestel, K. F. Ryleev, S. I. Muravyov-Apostol, M. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky) were hanged, more than 120 people were exiled to hard labor to Siberia, many officers were demoted and sent to the active army in the Caucasus.
Domestic policy of Nicholas I
Nicholas I ruled in Russia in 1825–1855. He considered his main task to be the strengthening of the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucracy. The Second Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery is being created. By order of the tsar, a systematization of all existing laws in Russia was undertaken. This work was entrusted to M. M. Speransky. In 1832, the Complete Collection of Laws was published Russian Empire, in 1833 the Code of current laws of the Russian Empire was issued. In 1826, the III department of the office was established, headed by Count A. Kh. Benckendorff. In addition to the police, a corps of gendarmes was introduced - in fact, the political police.
In 1837–1842 A number of reforms were carried out in the field of the peasant question. According to the project of the Minister of State Property P. D. Kiselev, the reform of the state peasants was carried out. Partial self-government was given to this category of peasants, the procedure for allocating land to peasants and taxing taxes was revised. Schools and hospitals were opened. According to the decree on "obligated peasants" (1842), landlords could give peasants personal freedom, and for the use of land, the latter were obliged to fulfill defined by the treaty duties.
Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin in 1839–1841 carried out a financial reform, introducing the silver ruble as the basis of monetary circulation and establishing a mandatory exchange rate for banknotes, which strengthened the country's financial position.
In the 30s. nineteenth century an industrial revolution begins in Russia, i.e., the transition from manual labor to the machine, from the manufactory to the factory. The specialization of the regions increased, the urban population increased, and transport developed.
In 1837 the first Railway Petersburg - Tsarskoye Selo, in 1851 the Nikolaevskaya railway Moscow - Petersburg was opened.
feudal system turned into a brake on economic development. The corvée system of agriculture did not meet the requirements of the time, hired labor was increasingly introduced. The further development of the country required the abolition of serfdom.
Social thought in the 1830s - 1850s.
After the defeat of the Decembrist movement, progressive social thought concentrated in circles. There were circles of the "Society of Philosophy", the brothers Kritsky, Stankevich, Granovsky and others, in which questions about the state of the country and its future were discussed.
Minister of Education S. S. Uvarov formulated the “theory of official nationality”, the main principles of which were proclaimed “autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality”. This theory was planted in education, literature, art.
By the end of the 1830s. in the liberal trend, two oppositional trends are emerging - the Westerners and the Slavophiles. The Westerners, led by T. N. Granovsky, believed that Russia should develop along the Western European path, and Peter I laid the foundation for the country's movement along this path. The Westerners were supporters of a constitutional monarchy and freedom of enterprise. Westerners were K. D. Kavelin, V. P. Botkin, M. N. Katkov. A. I. Herzen and V. G. Belinsky adjoined them. Slavophiles under the leadership of A. S. Khomyakov put forward the idea of an original path for Russia. At the heart of the identity of Russia lay the communal beginning of the life of the people and the Orthodox religion. The harmonious way of Russian life was, according to the Slavophiles, destroyed by the reforms of Peter I. The brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, the brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin adhered to Slavophilism. The slogan of the Slavophiles was: "The power of power - to the king, the power of opinion - to the people!" What was common for Westerners and Slavophiles was that both directions were in favor of reforms - the abolition of serfdom, the restriction of tsarism, and progressive transformations. Also, both directions strongly denied revolutionary actions.
A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, V. G. Belinsky gradually break away from the Westernizing wing of the liberals and go over to revolutionary ideology. They saw the salvation of Russia in socialism - a fair social order in which there is no private property and exploitation of man by man. Russian revolutionary democrats had a negative attitude towards Western European capitalism and considered the basis of socialism to be the peasant community that had been preserved in Russia from ancient times. They leaned towards revolutionary methods of fighting tsarism. In 1844, a circle of V. M. Butashevich-Petrashevsky arose in St. Petersburg. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and F. M. Dostoevsky attended its meetings. Most of the Petrashevites were in favor of a republican system, the complete liberation of the peasants without a ransom. In 1849 the circle was destroyed. 21 members of the group, including M. V. Petrashevsky and F. M. Dostoevsky, were sentenced to death, replaced by hard labor.
The wave of European revolutions of 1848–1849 plunged the tsarist government into horror: the “gloomy seven years” had come - the time of reaction. In exile, in London, Herzen founded the Free Russian Printing House. Leaflets were printed here, and since 1855 - the almanac "Polar Star".
Foreign policy in the second quarter of the nineteenth century.
Under Nicholas I, two trends combined in Russia's foreign policy: the suppression of revolutionary movements outside the country and the solution of the "Eastern Question" - dominance in the Black Sea, gaining control over the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, geopolitical interest in the Balkans, which pushed Russia to wars with Turkey. In 1849, the Hungarian Revolution was suppressed by Russian troops, which testified to the transformation of Russia into the gendarme of Europe.
War with Persia (Iran) 1826–1828 occurred due to the fact that Persia demanded a revision of the Gulistan Treaty. As a result of the war, the Turkmanchai peace was concluded, according to which the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates in Transcaucasia joined Russia.
War with Turkey 1828–1829 took place in the Balkans and the Caucasus. The enemy was defeated. According to the Treaty of Adrianople, South Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus departed to Russia. The Black Sea straits were opened for Russian ships. Turkey recognized the autonomy of Greece as part of the Ottoman Empire, and Serbia, Moldavia, Wallachia under the auspices of Russia. The strengthening of Russia's influence in the Balkans caused opposition from European states.
Caucasian War 1817–1864 Expanding its territories in the south, Russia, under Alexander I, began hostilities in the Caucasus. Among the mountaineers-Muslims, the movement of murids - fighters for the faith - began. Under the leadership of the leader - Imam Shamil - the murids waged a holy war against the infidels (Christians) - ghazavat. In Dagestan and Chechnya, under the leadership of Shamil, a strong theocratic state was created, which successfully resisted the onslaught of Russia. In 1859, Shamil was taken prisoner, and five years later the mountaineers' resistance was broken.
Under the Aigun 1858 and Beijing 1860 treaties with China, Russia acquired the Ussuri Territory.
Crimean War 1853–1856
The reason for the war was Russia's desire to solve the "Eastern question". The reason for the war was a dispute over "Palestinian shrines." Russia demanded that it be given the right to dispose of Christian churches in Palestine (then Turkish territory) - Bethlehem and Jerusalem. In response to the claims of Russia, a coalition arose, which included Turkey, France, and England. In October 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. On November 18, 1853, the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Sinop Bay. Also in the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated. All Allied attacks on Kronstadt, the Solovetsky Monastery, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, and Odessa were successfully repelled. In September 1854, the Allies landed their troops without hindrance in the Crimea, and the main military operations unfolded here, which gave the name to the war. The siege of Sevastopol by the coalition troops lasted 11 months. The defense of the city was led by V. A. Kornilov, P. S. Nakhimov, V. I. Istomin, significant role played by military engineer E. I. Totleben. It was also attended by the future writer L. N. Tolstoy, the surgeon N. I. Pirogov, who organized field surgery, used anesthesia and a plaster cast. During the war, nurses began to operate for the first time. In August 1855, Russian troops were forced to leave Sevastopol. The results of the Crimean War were summed up by the Treaty of Paris (1856). According to its provisions, Russia lost the right to have a navy and any military installations on the Black Sea. She lost the mouth of the Danube and Southern Bessarabia. The Danubian principalities and the Christians of the Ottoman Empire were placed under the guardianship of all the great powers. Russia returned the Kars fortress in the Caucasus to Turkey, and Turkey returned Sevastopol and other cities of the Crimea, captured during the war. The defeat in the war showed the backwardness of feudal Russia.
Russian culture in the first half of the nineteenth century.
The victory of 1812 had a great influence on the development of culture, the self-consciousness of the Russian people. The widespread penetration of the ideas of enlightenment into Russia, the Decembrist uprising, the formation of bourgeois liberalism and the revolutionary democratic movement had a noticeable effect on the life of society. The industrial revolution that began in Russia made demands on the development of the education system and various fields of knowledge. In the first half of the nineteenth century. Russian scientific thought became more active.
Education. Universities were opened in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Kharkov, Kazan, Tartu, Odessa, Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Special higher educational institutions were founded: the Technological Institute in St. Petersburg, the Mining and Land Survey Institutes in Moscow, etc. The number of secondary educational institutions also increased significantly: men's gymnasiums were opened, real schools operated, and the number of private boarding schools expanded. Home education became widespread. Primary education for children from the lower classes was given by parish and district schools for the burghers. However, in general, the number of literate people in 1860 was only 6% of the population.
The science. In 1826, N. I. Lobachevsky substantiated the theory of spatial, non-Euclidean geometry, which the church declared a heresy. The Pulkovo observatory headed by V. Ya. Struve was created near St. Petersburg. Surgeon N. I. Pirogov achieved great success in medicine. Chemists N. N. Zinin and A. M. Butlerov developed the foundations organic chemistry. Physicist B. S. Jacobi developed the basics of electroforming, invented an electric motor and tested it to drive a ship. Navigators I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky made the first Russian round-the-world trip (1803–1806), and F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev in 1819–1820. discovered Antarctica. In historical science, the work of N. M. Karamzin “History of the Russian State” became the first scientifically systematic review of the past of Russia, covering the history of the Russian state until 1611. The 29-volume “History of Russia from ancient times by S. I. science. The teacher K. D. Ushinsky created a new educational system.
Literature. Romanticism developed, singing the lofty ideal. It was reflected in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, K. F. Ryleev. From romanticism there has been a transition to realism, associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol. V. G. Belinsky played an important role in literary criticism. The most advanced literary forces united around the Sovremennik magazine.
Art. Painting. There is a departure from classicism (academism). Romanticism is developing, manifested in the work of O. A. Kiprensky (portraits of Zhukovsky and Pushkin), V. A. Tropinin (portrait of Pushkin, "The Lacemaker", "Guitarist"), K. P. Bryullov ("The Last Day of Pompeii", "The Horsewoman "). Popular household plot. Native nature, folk environment are presented in the paintings of A. G. Venetsianov “On the threshing floor”, “Spring. Arable land” and others. In the works of P. A. Fedotov, motifs of realism are already heard (“Wooing a Major”, “Breakfast of an Aristocrat”, “Fresh Cavalier”). A grandiose epic canvas by A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People" became an event in painting.
Sculpture. The works of sculptors I. P. Martos (a monument to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square in Moscow), B. I. Orlovsky (the monuments to M. I. Kutuzov and M. B. Barclay de Tolly near the building of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg), P. K. Klodt (sculptural group "Horse Tamers" on the Anichkov Bridge and the equestrian statue of Nicholas I in St. Petersburg).
Architecture. First half of the nineteenth century - the rise of classicism in architecture. In St. Petersburg, K. I. Rossi creates the building of the General Staff on Palace Square, O. Montferrand - St. Isaac's Cathedral, A. N. Voronikhin - Kazan Cathedral, A. D. Zakharov - the building of the Admiralty. O. I. Bove (buildings of the Bolshoi and Maly Theaters), A. G. Grigoriev and D. Gilardi worked in Moscow. The time associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin and other prominent figures of the first half of the nineteenth century. called the golden age of Russian culture.
Theater. The actors of the Maly Theater in Moscow M. S. Shchepkin, P. S. Mochalov, the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg - V. A. Karatygin and A. E. Martynov became famous.
Music. The founder of Russian classical music was M. I. Glinka, who created the operas A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin), Ruslan and Lyudmila, and numerous romances. His follower A. S. Dargomyzhsky wrote the music for many songs, romances, operas "Mermaid", "Stone Guest".
Job Samples
When completing the tasks of part 1 (A) in the answer sheet No. 1, under the number of the task you are performing, put an “x” in the box, the number of which corresponds to the number of the answer you have chosen.
A1. The dates 1828, 1858, 1860 refer to events related to history
1) Industrial development
2) Russia's foreign policy
4) cultural development
A2. At the initiative of M. M. Speransky in Russia at the beginning of the nineteenth century. was established
2) Supreme secret council
3) Discharge order
4) State Council
A3. During the reign of Nicholas I, a reform was carried out
1) zemstvo self-government
2) provincial
3) monetary
4) military
A4. Architects who created their works in the nineteenth century.
1) A. N. Voronikhin and D. I. Gilardi
2) V. V. Rastrelli and D. Trezzini
3) A. G. Venetsianov and V. A. Tropinin
4) M. F. Kazakov and V. I. Bazhenov
A5. What events took place during the reign of Alexander I?
A) the introduction of recruitment
B) reform higher education
C) the abolition of the mutual responsibility of the peasants
D) signing of the Tilsit peace treaty
D) the creation of the first secret societies
E) convening the Legislative Commission
Specify the correct answer.
A6. In the nineteenth century called a military settlement
1) military camp in countryside during the exercise
2) a village where a detachment of partisans was stationed in 1812
3) a military fortress created in a mountainous area during Caucasian war
4) a village in which peasants combined economic activity with military service
A7. The theory of "Russian", "peasant" socialism by A. I. Herzen and N. G. Chernyshevsky included the position
1) “The Russian peasant is not accustomed to community property»
2) "The peasant community is a ready-made cell of the socialist system"
3) “In Russia it is necessary to create conditions for the development of capitalism”
4) "The transition to socialism in Russia will be carried out by the will of the tsar"
A8. The worldview of the Slavophiles was based on
1) the idea of a special path for the development of Russia
2) the teachings of the French enlighteners
3) theories of Western European utopian socialism
4) denial of religion
A9. On the development of capitalism in Russia in the early nineteenth century. show signs
A) the strengthening of serfdom
B) small-scale peasant production
C) the use of the labor of hired workers in manufactories
D) growing new crops
D) the beginning of the industrial revolution
E) the emergence of monopolies
Specify the correct answer.
A10. Read an excerpt from the order (September 1854) and indicate which city is being defended.
“The enemy is approaching the city, in which there is very little garrison; I am in need of flooding the ships of the squadron entrusted to me, and attaching the remaining teams with boarding weapons to the garrison.
1) St. Petersburg
3) Kronstadt
2) Ishmael
4) Sevastopol
The tasks of part 2 (B) require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should be written first in the text of the examination paper, and then transferred to the answer form No. 1 without spaces and other symbols. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.
IN 1. Read an extract from a historical document and write the name of the author of the theory presented in the document.
“Deepening into the consideration of the subject and seeking those principles that are the property of Russia ... it becomes clear that those principles, without which Russia cannot prosper, grow stronger, live, we have three main ones: 1) Orthodox faith; 2) Autocracy; 3) Nationality.
Answer: Uvarov.
AT 2. Establish a correspondence between the names of scientists and the fields of knowledge in which they have shown themselves.
For each position of the first column, select the corresponding position of the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.
Answer: 1524.
AT 3. List the events of the 19th century. in chronological order. Write the letters that denote the events in the correct sequence in the table.
A) the monetary reform of E. F. Kankrin
B) Peace of Tilsit
C) the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I
D) Congress of Berlin
Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).
Answer: BVAG.
AT 4. Which three of the names listed below are participants in anti-government demonstrations? Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down in the table.
1) K. I. Bulavin
4) P. I. Pestel
2) S. S. Uvarov
5) E. Biron
3) A. A. Arakcheev
6) P. I. Pestel
Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).
Answer: 146.
To answer the tasks of part 3 (C), use the answer sheet No. 2. First write down the task number (C1, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it.
Tasks С4-С7 provide for different types of activities: presentation of a generalized characteristic historical events and phenomena (C4), consideration of historical versions and assessments (C5), analysis of the historical situation (C6), comparison (C7). As you complete these tasks, pay attention to the wording of each question.
C4. Reveal the reasons for Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. Determine the significance of Russia's victory.
Similar information.
Alexander I became Russian emperor as a result of a palace coup and regicide on March 11, 1801.
In the first years of his reign, he believed that the country needed fundamental reforms and serious renewal. To carry out reforms, he created an Unspoken Committee to discuss reform projects. The secret committee put forward the idea of limiting autocracy, but at first it was decided to carry out reforms in the sphere of administration. In 1802 the reform began supreme bodies government, established ministries, established the Committee of Ministers. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", according to which landowners could release their serfs into freedom with land allotments for a ransom. After the appeal of the Baltic landowners, he approved the law on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estonia (1811).
In 1809, the secretary of state of the emperor M. Speransky presented to the tsar a draft of a radical reform government controlled- a project to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Having met the active resistance of the nobles, Alexander I abandoned the project.
In 1816-1822. in Russia, noble secret societies arose - the "Union of Salvation". Welfare Union Southern Society, Northern Society - with the aim of introducing a republican constitution in Russia or constitutional monarchy. By the end of his reign, Alexander I, under pressure from the nobles and fearing popular uprisings, abandoned all liberal ideas and serious reforms.
In 1812, Russia experienced the invasion of Napoleon's army, the defeat of which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris. Russia's foreign policy has undergone fundamental changes. Unlike Paul I, who supported Napoleon, Alexander, on the contrary, opposed France, and resumed trade and political relations with England.
In 1801, Russia and England concluded an anti-French convention "On Mutual Friendship", and then, in 1804, Russia joined the third anti-French coalition. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the coalition fell apart. In 1807, the forced Peace of Tilsit was signed with Napoleon. Subsequently, Russia and its allies inflicted a decisive defeat on Napoleon's army in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig in 1813.
In 1804-1813. Russia won the war with Iran, seriously expanded and strengthened its southern borders. In 1806-1812. was protracted Russian-Turkish war. As a result of the war with Sweden in 1808-1809. Russia included Finland, later Poland (1814).
In 1814, Russia took part in the work of the Congress of Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war structure of Europe and in the creation of the Holy Alliance to ensure peace in Europe, which included Russia and almost all European countries.
THE BEGINNING OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I
And yet, the first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories among contemporaries, “A wonderful beginning of the Days of Alexander” - this is how A.S. Pushkin. A short period of enlightened absolutism set in.” Universities, lyceums, gymnasiums were opened. Measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Alexander stopped the distribution of state peasants into the possession of the landowners. In 1803, a decree on "free cultivators" was adopted. According to the decree, the landowner could free his peasants by giving them land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landlords were in no hurry to take advantage of this decree. During the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls were released. But the ideas laid down in the decree of 1803 subsequently formed the basis of the reform of 1861.
In the Unspoken Committee, a proposal was made to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. Human trafficking was carried out in Russia in undisguised, cynical forms. Announcements about the sale of serfs were published in newspapers. At the Makariev fair, they were sold along with other goods, families were separated. Sometimes a Russian peasant, bought at a fair, went to distant Eastern countries, where until the end of his days he lived in the position of a foreign slave.
Alexander I wanted to stop such shameful phenomena, but the proposal to ban the sale of peasants without land ran into the stubborn resistance of the highest dignitaries. They believed that this undermined serfdom. Without showing perseverance, the young emperor retreated. It was forbidden only to publish advertisements for the sale of people.
By the beginning of the XIX century. the administrative system of the state was in a state of apparent collapse. The collegial form of central administration that was introduced clearly did not justify itself. A circular irresponsibility reigned in the colleges, covering up bribery and embezzlement. Local authorities, taking advantage of the weakness of the central government, committed lawlessness.
At first, Alexander I hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of unity of command. In 1802, instead of the previous 12 colleges, 8 ministries were created: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. This measure strengthened the central administration. But a decisive victory in the fight against abuse was not achieved. Old vices settled in the new ministries. Growing, they rose to the upper floors of state power. Alexander was aware of senators who took bribes. The desire to expose them struggled in him with the fear of dropping the prestige of the Senate. It became obvious that the task of creating such a system of state power that would actively promote the development of the country's productive forces, and not devour its resources, could not be solved by mere rearrangements in the bureaucratic machine. A fundamentally new approach to solving the problem was required.
Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia with early XVIII until the end of the XIX century, M., 2001
"RUSSIAN POLICY DOES NOT EXIST"
Russian, Russian politics in the reign of Emperor Alexander I, one might say, does not exist. There is a European policy (a hundred years later they would say "pan-European"), there is a policy of the universe - the policy of the Holy Alliance. And there is the “Russian policy” of foreign cabinets that use Russia and its Tsar for their own selfish purposes by the skillful work of proxies who have unlimited influence on the Sovereign (such, for example, Pozzo di Borgo and Michaud de Boretour - two amazing adjutant generals who ran Russian politics , but for their long-term adjutant general who did not learn a single Russian word).
There are four phases here:
The first is the era of predominantly English influence. This is "the days of Alexander's wonderful beginning." The young Sovereign is not averse to dreaming in a circle of intimate friends about "projects for the Russian constitution." England is the ideal and patroness of all liberalism, including Russian. At the head of the English government, Pitt the Younger is the great son of a great father, the mortal enemy of France in general and Bonaparte in particular. They embark on a wonderful idea of liberating Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon (England takes over the financial side). The result - the war with France - the second French war ... True, little English blood is shed, but Russian blood flows like a river at Austerlitz and Pultusk, Eylau and Friedland.
Friedland is followed by Tilsit, who opens the second era - the era of French influence. Napoleon's genius makes a deep impression on Alexander... The Tilsit banquet, St. George's crosses on the breasts of the French grenadiers... The Erfurt rendezvous - the Emperor of the West, the Emperor of the East... Russia's hands are untied on the Danube, where she is waging war with Turkey, while Napoleon gets freedom of action in Spain. Russia recklessly joins the continental system without considering all the consequences of this step.
Napoleon left for Spain. In the meantime, Stein's brilliant Prussian head had matured a plan for the liberation of Germany from the yoke of Napoleon - a plan based on Russian blood ... From Berlin to St. Petersburg is closer than from Madrid to St. Petersburg. Prussian influence begins to supplant French. Stein and Pfuel handled the matter skillfully, deftly presenting to the Russian Emperor all the greatness of the feat of "saving the tsars and their peoples." At the same time, their accomplices set Napoleon on Russia, in every possible way insinuating Russia's non-compliance with the continental treaty, touching on Napoleon's sore spot, his hatred for his main enemy - England. Relations between the Erfurt allies finally deteriorated and a trifling pretext (artfully inflated by the efforts of German well-wishers) turned out to be enough to involve Napoleon and Alexander in a cruel three-year war that bled and ruined their countries - but turned out to be extremely profitable (as the instigators counted on) for Germany in general and for Prussia in particular.
Using to the end the weaknesses of Alexander I - a passion for posture and mysticism - foreign cabinets with subtle flattery forced him to believe in their messianism and, through their trusted people, inspired him with the idea of the Holy Alliance, which then turned in their skillful hands into the Holy Alliance of Europe against Russia. Contemporary to those sad events, the engraving depicts "the oath of three monarchs on the coffin of Frederick the Great in eternal friendship." An oath for which four Russian generations paid a terrible price. At the Congress of Vienna, Galicia, which it had received shortly before, was taken away from Russia, and in exchange the Duchy of Warsaw was given, which prudently, to the greater glory of Germanism, introduced into Russia a hostile Polish element. In this fourth period, Russian policy is directed at the behest of Metternich.
WAR OF 1812 AND FOREIGN CAMPAIGN OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY
Of the 650 thousand soldiers of the "Great Army" of Napoleon returned to their homeland, according to some sources, 30 thousand, according to others - 40 thousand soldiers. In essence, the Napoleonic army was not expelled, but exterminated in the endless snowy expanses of Russia. December 21 reported to Alexander: "The war is over for the complete extermination of the enemy." On December 25, the tsar's manifesto, timed to coincide with the Nativity of Christ, was published announcing the end of the war. Russia turned out to be the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing blow on it. The secret of victory was that it was a national liberation, truly Patriotic, war. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. Twelve provinces, which became the scene of hostilities, were devastated. The ancient Russian cities of Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Moscow were burned and destroyed. Direct military losses amounted to over 300 thousand soldiers and officers. Even greater losses were among the civilian population.
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a huge impact on all aspects of the social, political and cultural life of the country, contributed to the growth of national self-consciousness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of advanced social thought in Russia.
But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not yet mean that Russia had succeeded in putting an end to Napoleon's aggressive plans. He himself openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly put together a new army for the campaign of 1813.
Alexander I decided to preempt Napoleon and immediately transfer military operations outside the country. In pursuance of his will, Kutuzov, in an order for the army of December 21, 1812, wrote: “Without stopping among heroic deeds, we are now moving forward. Let's go through the borders and try to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields. Both Alexander and Kutuzov rightfully counted on help from the peoples conquered by Napoleon, and their calculation was justified.
On January 1, 1813, a hundred thousandth Russian army under the command of Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered Poland. On February 16, in Kalisz, where the headquarters of Alexander I was located, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia. Prussia also assumed the obligation to supply the Russian army with food on its territory.
In early March, Russian troops occupied Berlin. By this time, Napoleon had formed an army of 300,000, from which 160,000 soldiers moved against the allied forces. A heavy loss for Russia was the death of Kutuzov on April 16, 1813 in the Silesian city of Bunzlau. Alexander I appointed P.Kh. as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Wittgenstein. His attempts to lead his own strategy, different from Kutuzov's, led to a number of failures. Napoleon, having inflicted defeats on the Russian-Prussian troops at Luzen and Bautzen in late April - early May, threw them back to the Oder. Alexander I replaced Wittgenstein as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces with Barclay de Tolly.
In July - August 1813 England, Sweden and Austria joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. At the disposal of the coalition was up to half a million soldiers, divided into three armies. The Austrian Field Marshal Karl Schwarzenberg was appointed commander-in-chief of all the armies, and the general leadership of the conduct of military operations against Napoleon was carried out by the council of three monarchs - Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III.
By the beginning of August 1813, Napoleon already had 440 thousand soldiers, and on August 15 he defeated the coalition forces near Dresden. Only the victory of the Russian troops three days after the Battle of Dresden over the corps of Napoleonic General D. Vandam near Kulm prevented the collapse of the coalition.
The decisive battle during the campaign of 1813 took place near Leipzig on October 4-7. It was a "battle of the nations". More than half a million people participated in it from both sides. The battle ended with the victory of the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops.
After the battle of Leipzig, the allies slowly moved towards the French border. In two and a half months, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from French troops, with the exception of some fortresses, in which the French garrisons stubbornly defended themselves until the very end of the war.
On January 1, 1814, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. By this time, Denmark had joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The allied troops were continuously replenished with reserves, and by the beginning of 1814 they already numbered up to 900 thousand soldiers. During the two winter months of 1814, Napoleon won 12 battles against them and drew two. In the camp of the coalition again there were fluctuations. The allies offered peace to Napoleon on the condition that France return to the borders of 1792. Napoleon refused. Alexander I insisted on continuing the war, striving to overthrow Napoleon from the throne. At the same time, Alexander I did not want the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne: he offered to leave Napoleon's infant son on the throne under the regency of his mother Marie-Louise. On March 10, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England signed the Treaty of Chaumont, according to which they pledged not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon about peace or a truce. The threefold superiority of the allies in the number of troops by the end of March 1814 led to a victorious end to the campaign. Having won in early March in the battles of Laon and Arcy sur Aube, a 100,000-strong group of allied troops moved on Paris, defended by a 45,000-strong garrison. March 19, 1814 Paris capitulated. Napoleon rushed to liberate the capital, but his marshals refused to fight and forced him to sign an abdication on March 25. According to the peace treaty signed on May 18 (30), 1814 in Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne, on which the Bourbons were restored. Louis XVIII, who returned from Russia, where he was in exile, became the King of France.
ENTERTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT OF THE ALEXANDER AGE
The holidays of the dynasty were nation-wide days of rest and festivities, and every year all of St. Petersburg, seized with festive excitement, waited for July 22. A few days before the celebrations, thousands of people rushed from the city along the Peterhof road: to know in luxurious carriages, nobles, townspeople, commoners - whoever needs it. A journal from the 1820s tells us:
“Several people are crowded on the droshky and willingly endure shaking and anxiety; there, in a Chukhon wagon, there is a whole family with large stocks of provisions of all kinds, and they all patiently swallow thick dust ... Moreover, on both sides of the road there are many pedestrians whose hunting and strength of legs overpower the lightness of the wallet; peddlers of various fruits and berries - and they rush to Peterhof in the hope of profit and vodka. ... The pier also presents a lively picture, here thousands of people crowd and rush to get on the ship.
Petersburgers spent several days in Peterhof - the parks were open for everyone. Tens of thousands of people spent the night right on the streets. The warm, short bright night did not seem tiring to anyone. The nobles slept in their carriages, the burghers and peasants in the wagons, hundreds of carriages formed real bivouacs. Everywhere one could see horses chewing, people sleeping in the most picturesque poses. They were peaceful hordes, everything was unusually quiet and orderly, without the usual drunkenness and massacre. After the end of the holiday, the guests just as quietly left for St. Petersburg, life went back to its usual track until the next summer ...
In the evening, after dinner and dancing in the Grand Palace, a masquerade began in the Lower Park, where everyone was admitted. By this time, Peterhof parks were being transformed: alleys, fountains, cascades, as in the 18th century, were decorated with thousands of lit bowls and multi-colored lamps. Orchestras played everywhere, crowds of guests in masquerade costumes walked along the alleys of the park, parting in front of the cavalcades of smart horsemen and carriages of members of the royal family.
With the ascension of Alexander, St. Petersburg celebrated its first century with particular joy. In May 1803, there were continuous festivities in the capital. Spectators saw on the birthday of the city how a myriad of festively dressed people filled all the alleys of the Summer Garden ... on the Tsaritsyn Meadow there were booths, swings and other devices for all kinds of folk games. In the evening Summer garden, the main buildings on the embankment, the fortress and the small Dutch house of Peter the Great ... were magnificently illuminated. On the Neva, a flotilla of small ships of the imperial squadron, dismantled with flags, was also brightly lit, and on the deck of one of these ships one could see ... the so-called "Grandfather of the Russian Fleet" - the boat from which the Russian fleet began ...
Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. SPb., 2008
LEGENDS AND RUMORS ABOUT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I
What happened there in the south is shrouded in mystery. It is officially known that Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The body of the sovereign was hastily embalmed and taken to St. Petersburg. […] And since about 1836, already under Nicholas I, rumors spread around the country that a certain wise old man Fyodor Kuzmich Kuzmin lives among the people, righteous, educated and very, very similar to the late emperor, although he does not at all pretend to imposture . He walked for a long time in the holy places of Rus', and then settled in Siberia, where he died in 1864. The fact that the elder was not a commoner was clear to everyone who saw him.
But then a furious and insoluble dispute flared up: who is he? Some say that this is the once brilliant cavalry guard Fyodor Uvarov, who mysteriously disappeared from his estate. Others believe that it was the Emperor Alexander himself. Of course, among the latter there are many crazy and graphomaniacs, but there are also serious people. They pay attention to many strange facts. The cause of death of the 47-year-old emperor, in general, a healthy, mobile person, is not fully understood. There is some strange confusion in the documents about the death of the king, and this led to the suspicion that the papers were drawn up retroactively. When the body was delivered to the capital, when the coffin was opened, everyone was amazed by the cry of the mother of the deceased, Empress Maria Feodorovna, at the sight of Alexander’s dark, “like a Moor’s” face: “This is not my son!” There was talk of some mistake in the embalming. Or maybe, as supporters of the departure of the king say, this mistake was not accidental? Just shortly before November 19, a courier crashed before the eyes of the sovereign - the carriage was carried by horses. They put him in a coffin, and Alexander himself ...
[…] In recent months, Alexander I has changed a lot. It seemed that some important thought possessed him, which made him thoughtful and resolute at the same time. […] Finally, relatives recalled how Alexander often spoke of being tired and dreaming of leaving the throne. The wife of Nicholas I, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, wrote in her diary a week before their coronation on August 15, 1826:
“Probably, when I see the people, I will think about how the late Emperor Alexander, once speaking to us about his abdication, added: “How I will rejoice when I see you passing by me, and I will shout to you in the crowd“ Hurray! waving his cap.
Opponents object to this: is it ever seen to give up such power? Yes, and all these conversations of Alexander are just his usual pose, affectation. And in general, why did the king need to go to the people that he did not like so much. Was there no other way to live without the throne - remember the Swedish Queen Christina, who left the throne and went to enjoy life in Italy. Or it was possible to settle in the Crimea and build a palace. Yes, you could go to the monastery, finally. […] Meanwhile, from one shrine to another, pilgrims wandered around Russia with staffs and knapsacks. Alexander saw them many times in his trips around the country. These were not vagabonds, but people full of faith and love for their neighbor, eternal enchanted wanderers of Rus'. Their continuous movement along an endless road, their faith, visible in their eyes and not requiring proof, could suggest a way out for the weary sovereign ...
In a word, there is no clarity in this story. The best connoisseur of the time of Alexander I, historian N.K. Schilder, the author of a fundamental work about him, a brilliant connoisseur of documents and an honest person, said:
“The whole dispute is only possible because some certainly want Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich to be the same person, while others absolutely do not want this. Meanwhile, there are no definite data to resolve this issue in one direction or another. I can give as much evidence in favor of the first opinion as in favor of the second, and no definite conclusion can be drawn. […]
Since the relationship between father and grandmother did not work out, the Empress took her grandson from his parents. Catherine II immediately flared up big love to her grandson and decided what she would make of the newborn ideal emperor.
Alexander was brought up by the Swiss Laharpe, who was considered by many to be a staunch republican. The prince received a good Western-style education.
Alexander believed in the possibility of creating an ideal, humane society, he sympathized with the French Revolution, felt sorry for the Poles deprived of statehood, and was skeptical of the Russian autocracy. Time, however, dispelled his belief in such ideals ...
Alexander I became Emperor of Russia after the death of Paul I, as a result of a palace coup. The events that took place on the night of March 11-12, 1801, affected the life of Alexander Pavlovich. He was very worried about the death of his father, and guilt haunted him all his life.
Domestic policy of Alexander I
The emperor saw the mistakes made by his father during his reign. The main reason for the conspiracy against Paul I was the abolition of privileges for the nobility that Catherine II introduced. First of all, he restored these rights.
Domestic policy had a strictly liberal connotation. He declared an amnesty for people who were subjected to repression during his father's rule, allowed them to freely travel abroad, reduced censorship and returned to the foreign press.
He carried out a large-scale reform of public administration in Russia. In 1801, the Permanent Council was created - a body that had the right to discuss and cancel the decrees of the emperor. The indispensable council had the status of a legislative body.
Instead of collegiums, ministries were created, headed by responsible persons. So the cabinet of ministers was formed, which became the most important administrative body Russian Empire. During the reign of Alexander I, undertakings played a big role. He was a talented man with great ideas in his head.
Alexander I distributed all sorts of privileges to the nobility, but the emperor understood the seriousness of the peasant issue. Many titanic efforts were made to alleviate the position of the Russian peasantry.
In 1801, a decree was adopted, according to which merchants and philistines could buy free lands and organize economic activities on them using hired labor. This decree destroyed the monopoly of the nobility on land ownership.
In 1803, a decree was issued, which went down in history as the “Decree on free cultivators”. Its essence was that now, the landowner could make a serf free for a ransom. But such a deal is possible only with the consent of both parties.
Free peasants had the right to property. Throughout the reign of Alexander I, there was continuous work, aimed at solving the most important internal political issue - the peasant. Various projects were developed to give freedom to the peasantry, but they remained only on paper.
There was also a reform of education. The Russian Emperor understood that the country needed new highly qualified personnel. Now educational institutions were divided into four successive levels.
The territory of the Empire was divided into educational districts, headed by local universities. The university provided personnel and educational programs to local schools and gymnasiums. In Russia, 5 new universities were opened, many gymnasiums and colleges.
Foreign policy of Alexander I
His foreign policy is primarily "recognizable" by the Napoleonic wars. Russia was at war with France, most of the reign of Alexander Pavlovich. In 1805, a major battle took place between the Russian and French armies. The Russian army was defeated.
Peace was signed in 1806, but Alexander I refused to ratify the treaty. In 1807, the Russian troops were defeated near Friedland, after which the emperor had to conclude the Tilsit peace.
Napoleon sincerely considered the Russian Empire his only ally in Europe. Alexander I and Bonaparte seriously discussed the possibility of joint military operations against India and Turkey.
France recognized the rights of the Russian Empire to Finland, and Russia, the rights of France to Spain. But due to a number of reasons, Russia and France could not be allies. The interests of the countries clashed in the Balkans.
Also, the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, which prevented Russia from conducting profitable trade, became a stumbling block between the two powers. In 1810, Napoleon asked for the hand of Alexander Pavlovich's sister, Anna, but was refused.
In 1812 the Patriotic War began. After the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia, foreign campaigns of the Russian army began. During the events of the Napoleonic wars, many worthy people inscribed their names in golden letters in the history of Russia:, Davydov, ...
Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The emperor died of typhoid fever. The unexpected departure of the emperor from life gave rise to many rumors. There was a legend among the people that a completely different person was buried instead of Alexander I, and the emperor himself began to wander around the country and, having reached Siberia, settled in this area, leading the life of an old hermit.
Summing up, we can say that the reign of Alexander I can be characterized in positive terms. He was one of the first to speak about the importance of limiting autocratic power, introducing a duma and a constitution. Under him, voices calling for the abolition of serfdom began to sound louder, and a lot of work was done in this respect.
During the reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825), Russia was able to successfully defend itself against an external enemy that conquered all of Europe. became the personification of the unity of the Russian people, in the face of external danger. The successful defense of the borders of the Russian Empire is undoubtedly a great merit of Alexander I.
The reign of Alexander I should be considered in two time periods, since the conduct of both external and domestic policy, including the national one, before the start of the Patriotic War and after its completion were somewhat different. However, if we analyze the national policy following general aspects, then it differed significantly from the manner of solving national issues of all the predecessors and successors of Alexander I, primarily in its liberalism.
Jewish question
In the first years of his reign, Alexander I actively introduced enlightened absolutism in the state, which significantly improved the legal and economic position of the Jewish population in the state. In 1802, the Jewish Committee was created, the main purpose of which was to defend the rights of Jews and involve them in social relations. Committee meetings were held in the presence of delegates of this nationality from different parts of the empire, who belonged to different classes of society.
From 1807 on the part of the tsarist government, the Jewish population was granted a number of liberal prerogatives. Such a policy was aimed at preventing the Jews from taking the side of the French, who during this period intensified their intervention in Europe. After the end of the Patriotic War, Alexander I significantly tightened his policy towards this nationality.
In 1816, a massive forced conversion to Christianity began. Since 1819, the Jewish population was forbidden to leave the Pale of Settlement without permission. government agencies. The situation of the Jews who lived in the territories of the outskirts was especially difficult. In 1824, the emperor issued a decree prohibiting the resettlement of foreign Jews on the territory of the Russian Empire. It should be noted that Alexander I did not use economic methods oppression of the Jews - they were not burdened with taxes, free trade was allowed.
The position of the Poles under Alexander I
In 1815, part of the territory of Poland began to belong to the Russian crown. Accession was the result of the redistribution of the Polish state between Prussia, Austria and Russia. East End Poland, larger than 130 sq. km and a population of over 3 million people, in the status of the Kingdom of Poland became part of the Russian Empire. Such an accession required Alexander I to conduct a wise national policy regarding the Polish population.
It should be noted that the emperor managed to implement it. Alexander I already at the end of 1815 granted the Poles a Constitution, according to which the Kingdom of Poland retained its sovereignty. Poland retained all state structures: the Sejm, the army, the government and the courts. the only state monetary unit continued to remain złoty. The most important government positions were held exclusively by Poles.
In 1818, the emperor personally opened the work of the Polish legislative body - the Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland. During the reign of Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland was the only state on the entire European continent where democratic open elections to the legislative body were held.
The article tells briefly about the domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I. During the reign of Alexander I, one of the central events of Russian history took place - the Patriotic War of 1812, which largely influenced the further development of Russia.
- Patriotic War of 1812
- Video
Domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I until 1812
Patriotic War of 1812
- Russia's failure to comply with the conditions of the continental blockade eventually led to the invasion of Napoleon's army. Without going into a detailed course of hostilities, we note that the main factors of victory were the patriotic impulse of the Russian army, Kutuzov's successful tactics, which consisted in exhausting the enemy and Napoleon's serious miscalculations regarding the company's plan.
- The surrender of Moscow in order to save the army was incomprehensible to Napoleon, crossed out his experience of waging wars in Europe. The Battle of Borodino was a turning point. Russian historians claim that the victory was won by Russia, the French express the opposite opinion. However, the losses on both sides were huge. Napoleon realizes that the continuation of the campaign is futile and begins a retreat, gradually turning into a flight.
- The foreign campaign of the Russian army ends in Paris and proclaims the glory of Russian weapons. Russia acts as a pan-European leader. To this end, Alexander I founded in 1815 the "Holy Alliance" (Russia, Austria, Prussia), which was supposed to become the guarantor of European peace.
Domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I after 1815
- The war with Napoleon and subsequent political processes had an impact on the reformist mood of Alexander I. The romantic, faced with reality, is disappointed in his former ideals. A reactionary element begins to show itself in the emperor's actions.
- For some time, Alexander I was still trying to continue the reforms. In 1815 he adopts the constitution of Poland. In subsequent years, he was freed from serfdom without allotment of land to the peasants of the Baltic provinces.
- However, from 1820 the emperor completely curtailed his reform activities. Its domestic policy is to preserve and conserve the existing system. Censorship is intensifying, a ban on "free-thinking" is announced. A kind of second enslavement of the peasants is the creation of military settlements. By the end of the reign, Alexander I retires altogether, leaving control to the state elite.
- There are no major shifts in foreign policy. Alexander I was concerned only with the preservation of European and his own monarchy against the revolutionary movement.
The results and significance of the domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I
- Conditionally dividing the reign of Alexander I into two periods, which are separated by the war with Napoleon, we can draw the following conclusions. In the first period, the emperor was set on reforms, carried out some of them, but his main merit was the reform of the state apparatus.
- The war of 1812 was a triumph for the Russian army, but at the same time it led to a tightening of domestic policy and curtailment of reforms.
- The Holy Alliance formed by Alexander I, which was supposed to become the guarantor of peace, acquired the status of a European gendarme, punishing any manifestations of freedom.
