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Summary: Philosophical foundations of Buddhism. The central place in Buddhism is occupied by moral problems Salvation Buddhism

Buddhism, along with Islam and Christianity, is considered a world religion. This means that she is not defined by the ethnicity of her followers. Anyone can profess it, regardless of race, nationality and place of residence. In the article we will briefly consider the main ideas of Buddhism.

Summary of the Ideas and Philosophy of Buddhism

Briefly about the history of the emergence of Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the most ancient religions in the world. Its origin took place as a counterweight to the prevailing Brahmanism back in the middle of the first millennium BC in the northern part. In philosophy ancient india Buddhism occupied and occupies a key place, closely intertwined with it.

If we consider the emergence of Buddhism briefly, then, according to a separate category of scientists, this phenomenon was facilitated by certain changes in the life of the Indian people. Approximately in the middle of the VI century BC. Indian society was overtaken by a cultural and economic crisis.

Those tribal and traditional ties that existed before that time began to gradually undergo changes. It is very important that it was during that period that the formation of class relations took place. There were many ascetics roaming the expanses of India, who formed their own vision of the world, which they shared with other people. So, in opposition to the foundations of that time, Buddhism appeared, which earned recognition among the people.

A large number of scholars believe that the founder of Buddhism was a real person named Siddhartha Gautama , known as Buddha Shakyamuni . He was born in 560 BC. in a wealthy family of the king of the Shakya tribe. From childhood, he knew neither disappointment nor need, he was surrounded by boundless luxury. And so Siddhartha lived his youth, being ignorant of the existence of disease, old age and death.

The real shock for him was that he once encountered an old man, a sick man and a funeral procession while walking outside the palace. This influenced him so much that at the age of 29 he joins a group of wandering hermits. So he begins the search for the truth of being. Gautama tries to understand the nature of human troubles and tries to find ways to eliminate them. Realizing that an endless series of reincarnations is inevitable if one does not get rid of suffering, he tried to find answers to his questions from the sages.

After spending 6 years wandering, he tested different techniques, practiced yoga, but came to the conclusion that such methods of enlightenment cannot be achieved. He considered reflections and prayers as effective methods. It was while he was spending time meditating under the Bodhi tree that he experienced enlightenment through which he found the answer to his question.

After his discovery, he spent a few more days at the site of a sudden insight, and then went to the valley. And they began to call him Buddha ("enlightened"). There he began to preach the doctrine to people. The very first sermon took place in Benares.

Basic concepts and ideas of Buddhism

One of the main goals of Buddhism is the path to nirvana. Nirvana is a state of awareness of one's soul, achieved through self-denial, renunciation comfortable conditions external environment. The Buddha, after spending a long time in meditation and deep reflection, mastered the method of controlling his own consciousness. In the process, he came to the conclusion that people are very attached to worldly goods, overly worried about the opinions of other people. Because of this, the human soul not only does not develop, but also degrades. Having reached nirvana, you can lose this addiction.

The essential four truths underlying Buddhism are:

There is the concept of dukkha (suffering, anger, fear, self-flagellation and other negatively colored experiences). Everyone is affected by dukkha to a greater or lesser extent.
Dukkha always has a cause that contributes to the appearance of addiction - greed, vanity, lust, etc.
Addiction and suffering can be overcome.
It is possible to be completely free from dukkha through the path leading to nirvana.

The Buddha was of the opinion that it is necessary to adhere to the "middle way", that is, each person must find the "golden" mean between the well-to-do, satiated with luxury, and the ascetic, devoid of all the benefits of humanity, way of life.

There are three main treasures in Buddhism:

Buddha - he can be both the creator of the teaching himself, and his follower who has achieved enlightenment.
Dharma is the teaching itself, its foundations and principles, and what it can give to its followers.
Sangha is a community of Buddhists who adhere to the laws of this religious teaching.

In order to achieve all three jewels, Buddhists resort to fighting three poisons:

removal from the truth of being and ignorance;
desires and passions that contribute to the emergence of suffering;
intemperance, anger, inability to accept anything here and now.

According to the ideas of Buddhism, every person experiences both bodily and mental suffering. Sickness, death and even birth are suffering. But such a state is unnatural, so you need to get rid of it.

Briefly about the philosophy of Buddhism

This doctrine cannot be called only a religion, in the center of which is God, who created the world. Buddhism is a philosophy, the principles of which we will briefly discuss below. The teaching involves assistance in directing a person to the path of self-development and self-awareness.

In Buddhism, there is no idea that there is an eternal soul that atones for sins. However, everything that a person does and how, finds its imprint - it will definitely return to him. This is not divine punishment. These are the consequences of all actions and thoughts that leave traces on one's own karma.

In Buddhism, there are basic truths revealed by the Buddha:

Human life is suffering. All things are impermanent and transitory. When it arises, everything must be destroyed. Existence itself is symbolized in Buddhism as a flame that devours itself, and fire can only bring suffering.
Suffering comes from desire. Man is so attached to the material aspects of existence that he craves life passionately. The more this desire is, the more he will suffer.
Getting rid of suffering is possible only with the help of getting rid of desires. Nirvana is a state upon reaching which a person experiences the extinction of passions and thirst. Thanks to nirvana, a feeling of bliss arises, freedom from the transmigration of souls.
To achieve the goal of getting rid of desire, one should resort to the eightfold path of salvation. It is this path that is called the "middle" one, which allows you to get rid of suffering by refusing to go to extremes, which is somewhere between the torture of the flesh and the indulgence of physical pleasures.

The Eightfold Path of Salvation suggests:

right understanding - the most important thing to do is to realize that the world is full of suffering and sorrow;
right intentions - you need to take the path of limiting your passions and aspirations, the fundamental basis of which is human selfishness;
correct speech - it should be good, so you should watch your words (so that they do not exude evil);
right deeds - one should do good deeds, refrain from non-virtuous deeds;
the right way of life - only a worthy way of life, not harming all living things, can bring a person closer to getting rid of suffering;
right efforts - you need to tune in to good, drive away all evil from yourself, carefully following the course of your thoughts;
right thoughts - the most important evil comes from our own flesh, getting rid of the desires of which you can get rid of suffering;
correct concentration - the eightfold path requires constant training, concentration.

The first two stages are called prajna and suggest the stage of attaining wisdom. The next three are the regulation of morality and right conduct (sila). The remaining three steps represent the discipline of the mind (samadha).

Directions of Buddhism

The very first who supported the teachings of the Buddha began to gather in a secluded place for the period while it was raining. Since they renounced any property, they were called bhiksha - "beggars". They shaved their heads baldly, dressed in rags (mostly yellow color) and moved from place to place.

Their life was unusually ascetic. When it rains, they hide in caves. They were usually buried where they lived, and on the site of their graves a stupa was built (structures-crypts of a domed shape). Their entrances were made blindly immured and buildings of various purposes were built around the stupas.

After the death of the Buddha, a convocation of his followers took place, who canonized the teaching. But the period of the greatest flourishing of Buddhism can be considered the reign of Emperor Ashoka - III century BC. BC.

Can be distinguished three main philosophical schools of Buddhism , formed in different periods the existence of the doctrine:

Hinayana. The monk is considered the main ideal of the direction - only he can get rid of reincarnations. There is no pantheon of saints who could intercede for a person, there are no rituals, the concept of hell and paradise, cult sculptures, icons. Everything that happens to a person is the result of his actions, thoughts and lifestyle.
Mahayana. Even a layman (of course, if he is pious), along with a monk, can achieve salvation. There is an institution of bodhisattvas, who are saints who help people on the path to their salvation. The concept of paradise, the pantheon of saints, images of buddhas and bodhisattvas also appear.
Vajrayana. It is a tantric teaching based on the principles of self-control and meditation.

So, the main idea of Buddhism is that human life is suffering and one should strive to get rid of it. This teaching continues to spread steadily around the planet, gaining more and more supporters.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

TAVRICHESKY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

THEM. VERNADSKY

FACULTY OF FOREIGN PHILOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF GERMAN PHILOLOGY

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BUDDHISM

Instructor: Completed

Mikitinets A.Yu. 6th year student of group 67

Keshfetdinova Rushanie

Simferopol 2011

INTRODUCTION

The philosophy of Buddhism is deep and original, although it is based on the general worldview principles and categories developed by the theoreticians of ancient Indian thought even before it arose. First of all, Buddhism denies the reality of the phenomenal world. The phenomenal world is the source of suffering; salvation from them lies in leaving this world for the world of higher reality and absolute constancy, i.e., for nirvana.

In this essay, we will consider the history of Buddhism and the philosophical foundations of Buddhism.

I HISTORY OF BUDDHISM

1) Rise of Buddhism

Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in India in the 6th-5th centuries BC. Included in San Jiao - one of the three main religions of China. The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name of Buddha, i.e. awakened or enlightened.

Buddhism originated in northeastern India in areas of pre-Bahmin culture. Buddhism quickly spread throughout India and reached its peak at the end of the 1st millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. Buddhism had a great influence on Hinduism, which was reborn from Brahmanism, but was supplanted by Hinduism and to XII century AD virtually disappeared from India. The main reason for this was the opposition of the ideas of Buddhism to the caste system consecrated by Brahmanism. At the same time, starting from the 3rd century BC, it covered Southeast and Central Asia and partially Central Asia and Siberia.

Already in the first centuries of its existence, Buddhism was divided into 18 sects, disagreements between which caused the convocation of councils in Rajagriha in 447 BC, in Vaishavi in 367 BC, in Patalirutra in the 3rd century BC. and led at the beginning of our era to the division of Buddhism into two branches: Hinayana and Mahayana.

Hinayana established itself mainly in the southeastern countries and received the name of southern Buddhism, and Mahayana - in the northern countries, received the name of northern Buddhism.

The spread of Buddhism contributed to the creation of syncretic cultural complexes, the totality of which forms the so-called Buddhist culture.

A characteristic feature of Buddhism is its ethical and practical orientation. From the very beginning, Buddhism came out not only against the significance of external forms of religious life and, above all, ritualism, but also against abstract dogmatic quests, characteristic, in particular, of the Brahmanic-Vedic tradition. The problem of the existence of the individual was put forward as a central problem in Buddhism.

Suffering and liberation are represented in Buddhism as various states of a single being: suffering is the state of being manifested, liberation is the unmanifested. Both, being inseparable, appear, however, in early Buddhism as a psychological reality, in developed forms of Buddhism - as a cosmic reality.

Buddhism imagines liberation, first of all, as the destruction of desires, more precisely, the quenching of their passion. The Buddhist principle of the so-called middle (middle) path recommends avoiding extremes - both attraction to sensual pleasure, and the complete suppression of this attraction. In the moral-emotional sphere, the dominant concept in Buddhism is the concept of tolerance, relativity, from the standpoint of which moral prescriptions are not mandatory and can be violated.

In Buddhism, there is no concept of responsibility and guilt as something absolute, a reflection of this is the absence in Buddhism of a clear line between the ideals of religious and secular morality and, in particular, the softening or rejection of asceticism in its usual form. The moral ideal of Buddhism appears as absolute non-harm to others (ahinsa), resulting from general softness, kindness, and a sense of perfect satisfaction. In the intellectual sphere of Buddhism, the distinction between sensual and rational forms of cognition is eliminated and the practice of so-called contemplative reflection (meditation) is established, the result of which is the experience of the integrity of being (non-distinguishing between internal and external), complete self-absorption. The practice of contemplative reflection thus serves not so much as a means of knowing the world, but as one of the main means of transforming the psyche and psychophysiology of the individual. As a specific method of contemplative reflection, dhyanas, which have been called Buddhist yoga, are especially popular. The state of perfect satisfaction and self-deepening, absolute independence of inner being - the positive equivalent of extinguishing desires - is liberation, or nirvana.

Buddhism is based on the assertion of the principle of personality, inseparable from the surrounding world, and the recognition of the existence of a kind of psychological process in which the world is also involved. The result of this is the absence in Buddhism of the opposition of subject and object, spirit and matter, a mixture of individual and cosmic, psychological and ontological, and at the same time emphasizing the special potential forces lurking in the integrity of this spiritual and material being. The creative principle, the ultimate cause of being, is the mental activity of a person, which determines both the formation of the universe and its disintegration: this is a volitional decision of the "I", understood as a kind of spiritual and bodily integrity. From the non-absolute significance for Buddhism of everything that exists, regardless of the subject, from the absence of creative aspirations in the individual in Buddhism, the conclusion follows, on the one hand, that God as the highest being is immanent to man and the world, on the other hand, that in Buddhism there is no need for God as creator and savior, that is, in general, as an unconditionally supreme being, transcendent to this community. From this follows also the absence in Buddhism of the dualism of the divine and the non-divine, God and the world.

Starting with the denial of external religiosity, Buddhism in the course of its development came to recognize it. At the same time, the highest reality of Buddhism - nirvana - was identified with the Buddha, who from the personification of the moral ideal turned into his personal embodiment, thus becoming the highest object of religious emotions. Simultaneously with the cosmic aspect of nirvana, the cosmic concept of the Buddha arose, formulated in the doctrine of trikaya. The Buddhist pantheon began to grow due to the introduction into it of all kinds of mythological creatures, one way or another assimilating with Buddhism. The cult, covering all aspects of Buddhist life, from family life to holidays, became especially complicated in some Mahayana movements, in particular in Lamaism. Very early in Buddhism, a sangha appeared - a monastic community, from which, over time, a kind of religious organization grew.

The most influential Buddhist organization is the worldwide brotherhood of Buddhists, founded in 1950. The Buddhist literature is extensive and includes writings in Pali, Sanskrit, hybrid Sanskrit, Sinhalese, Burmese, Khmer, Chinese, Japanese, and Tibetan.

buddhism india philosophical doctrine

2) Founder of Buddhism - Guatama Buddha

The life of the founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha, or Gautama Buddha, the "Light of Asia", is fairly well known. He was born in the VI century. BC e. in the royal family in Kapilavastu (north of Bihar, at the foothills of the Himalayas) and in his youth he abandoned secular life. The illnesses, old age and death that he saw showed the young prince that the world is full of suffering, and the life of a wandering monk gave him the opportunity to find the path to liberation. Having become an ascetic, he tirelessly sought to resolve the issue of the real source of all suffering and the ways to completely get rid of them. Buddha sought answers from many religious teachers and in many schools of his time, subjected himself to severe ascetic trials, but nothing satisfied him. Then he decided to rely on his own forces. With an iron will, freeing his mind from disturbing thoughts and passions, he sought to uncover the secret of earthly suffering through constant concentrated reflection, until at last his efforts were crowned with success. Siddhartha became the Buddha, or Enlightened One. His enlightenment laid the foundations of the Buddhist religion and philosophy, which over time spread to Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Tibet, China, Japan and Korea.

Like all the great teachers of antiquity, the Buddha clothed his teachings in the form of conversations and for a long time, from generation to generation, they were orally transmitted from one student to another. The source of our knowledge of the Buddha's teachings at present is chiefly the Tripitaka (Three Baskets of Teachings), which are said to contain the Buddha's thoughts as transmitted by his closest disciples.

These three canonical works are called the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka and the Abhidharma Pitaka. The first work contains rules of conduct, the second is a collection of sermons and parables, the third poses and examines the problems of Buddhist philosophy. All three works are monuments of ancient Buddhist philosophy. They are written in the Pali language.

Over time, the number of followers of the Buddha increased so much that it led to their division into different schools. The most famous religious schools of Buddhism are Hinayana and Mahayana. The first has established itself in the south, and its strongholds are now Ceylon, Burma and Siam. The vast literature of this school is written in the Pali language. Mahayana spread mainly in the north - in Tibet, China and Japan. She expounded her philosophical works in Sanskrit, thanks to which an extensive Buddhist literature appeared in this language. Most of it was translated into Tibetan and Chinese, and in these translations it has been preserved in countries where Buddhism was established. Thanks to these translations, many of the most valuable Sanskrit texts lost in India have now been discovered and restored.

Since Buddhism flourished in many countries, it acquired the national color of these countries and changed under the influence of the former religion and beliefs of the converts. The religious schools of Buddhism that arose as a result of this were so numerous and the total mass of philosophical works in various languages is so great that for a complete acquaintance with Buddhist philosophy the life of even a person who would combine the erudition of a linguist and the depth of thinking of a philosopher would not be enough.

II PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BUDDHISM

The most important for Buddhists is the concept of dharma - it embodies the teachings of the Buddha, the highest truth that he revealed to all beings. “Dharma” literally means “support”, “that which supports”. Also, religion is Dharma in the sense that it keeps people or protects them from disasters. In a rough approximation, any exalted action of the body, speech or thought can be considered Dharma, because by such an action one is already protected from, or kept from, all kinds of misfortunes. The practice of such actions is the practice of Dharma. The word “dharma” in Buddhism means moral virtue, first of all, it is the moral and spiritual qualities of the Buddha, which believers should imitate. In addition, dharmas are the final elements into which, from the point of view of Buddhists, the stream of existence is broken.

Everything living in the world consists of dharmas, more precisely, of living moving dharmas. Life, in the strict sense of the word, is a manifestation of the beginningless and almost eternal agitation of dharmas, which constitutes its objective content. Understanding this and trying to calm your agitated dharmas means taking life into your own hands and thereby, ultimately, achieving the goal, that is, reaching Buddhahood, immersing yourself in nirvana. But how to do that?

Any creature, including man, is born, lives and dies. Death is the disintegration of this complex of dharmas, birth means its restoration, but in a different, new form. This is what the cycle of life boils down to, the cycle of endless rebirths, which, according to legend, was explained by the Buddha himself in his third sermon addressed to his disciples in Benares. The essence of the sermon is in the teaching about the twelve links-nidans of the cycle of being, the wheel of life. It all starts with the first key link - with avidya, ignorance that obscures the mind. Avidya entails actions caused by ignorance, actions give rise to habitual stereotypes of behavior, focused on the attitudes prevailing in society. Stereotypes form a certain consciousness, in accordance with which forms and categories-names are created, which become objects of perception of the sense organs. Steady contacts arise between the sense organs and forms-categories, as a result of which feelings appear, then desires, passions, a thirst for life. It is this thirst for life that leads to ever new rebirths, the consequence of which is inevitably the old age and death of all that is born.

Thus, the cycle of life begins with ignorance and ends with death. It is determined by the constant agitation of dharmas. Only one who overcomes avidya can calm the turbulent dharmas. Actually, this is what Buddhist monks have always been busy with, this was filled with and led to this by the eight-step path of comprehending the truth and approaching nirvana. The most zealous of the monks sometimes reached the highest stage of holiness, and even were ranked among the holy arhats who had reached or almost reached the state of Buddha and nirvana.

2) Four noble truths

The Blessed One said: “These are the true sufferings, these are the true sources, these are the true suppressions, these are the true paths. Suffering should be known, their sources should be eliminated, the suppression of suffering should be realized, the paths to liberation should be passed. Suffering must be known - then there will be no suffering left to be known. The sources of suffering must be eliminated - then there will be no sources left to be eliminated. The suppression of suffering should be carried out - then there will be no suppression that should be carried out. The paths must be traversed - then there will be no paths left to traverse."

True suffering is a phenomenon that stems from obscured actions and defilements and is included in the concept of the cycle of being. The true sources are the causes that produce true suffering. True suppressions are states of annihilation and disappearance of suffering and true sources. True paths are specific methods for achieving true stoppings.

Since true suffering arises from true sources, the sources actually precede suffering. Also, true suppressions are carried out through the passage of true paths; therefore, in fact, paths precede suppressions. However, the Blessed One reversed this order when he taught the Four Noble Truths, which is extremely important. For first man recognizes suffering, and then he investigates its causes; therefore the Buddha explained the sources of suffering after defining the suffering itself. When confidence is born in the possibility of eliminating suffering, there is also a desire to stop it. From this arises the desire to traverse the paths [to suppression]; therefore the Buddha explained the true paths after identifying the true restraints.

2.1 The cycle of life and living beings

The cycle of being is divided into three spheres: the world of desires, the world of forms and the world of formless. In the desire realm, beings indulge in the pleasures of the five desires: forms, sounds, smells, tastes, and tangible objects. The world of forms consists of two parts: in the lower, beings are not carried away by external pleasures, but experience the pleasure of internal contemplation. In the higher part, beings have generally turned away from pleasurable feelings and experience neutral feelings. In the world of formlessness, all forms, sounds, smells, tastes and tangible objects, as well as the five senses that give pleasure to them, are absent; only consciousness reigns here, and beings experience only neutral feelings, focused and without distractions.

The essence of the expression cycle of being is that it is a process that is not subject to anyone's control, occurring in accordance with darkened actions and filth. Its essential nature is sorrow; "it creates the basis for the suffering of the present and the generation of suffering in the future. Strictly speaking, the cycle of being is a polluted psychophysical aggregates that have developed as a result of clouded actions and filth. Since there is nothing in all three worlds that would not be included in the cycle of being, then the psychophysical the totality of all beings constitute the cycle of being.

2.2 Reasons for the cycle of being

There are two sources of suffering: defiled actions and defilements. Defilements are defined as peripheral factors of consciousness and are not in themselves any of the six primary consciousnesses [eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind]. However, when any of the defiling factors of consciousness manifests itself, the main consciousness [of the mind] falls under its influence, goes where the defilement leads it, and thereby “accumulates” the evil action.

There are a great many different defilements, but the main ones are [selfish] desire, malice, pride, false views, etc. Of these, desire and malice are the main ones. Anger arises from the initial attachment to oneself when something undesirable happens. Then, due to self-attachment, pride arises, and a person considers himself better than others. In the same way, when we don't know something, there is a false impression that the given object does not exist.

2.3 Actions

Actions, in terms of their nature, are of two types: intentions and implementation. Intention precedes physical or verbal acts and is a factor of consciousness that gives impetus to action. Fulfillment is the physical or verbal action that occurs when an intention is fulfilled.

From the point of view of the effects they produce, actions are of three kinds: those that give merit, those that do not give merit, and those that give unshakable. Actions that give merit result in a happy rebirth: life as humans, demigods, and gods. Actions that do not give merit result in a bad rebirth: life in the form of animals, hungry ghosts and martyrs of hells. Actions that give the unshakable move towards higher worlds, that is, to the world of forms and the world of formless.

All actions can be divided into physical, verbal and mental, and from the point of view of how the consequences are experienced, three types of actions can be distinguished: the consequences of actions, “accumulated”. In this life, can be experienced in this very life, in next life or in any of the subsequent rebirths.

2.4 Liberation

The cycle of being is fetters, and liberation means freedom from fetters. As explained above, the causes of the cycle of being are clouded actions and defilements. If the roots of defilements are eliminated and if new actions do not accumulate, then, since there are no longer defilements that could activate the potencies of defiled actions that have been preserved from the past, the causes of the cycle of being are thereby eliminated. So, it is freedom from shackles. As long as the psycho-physical aggregates produced by the former deluded actions and defilements still remain, this is, as some say, nirvana "with a remainder." When there are no more such aggregates, it is nirvana without remainder. “Without a remainder” means that there are no psychophysical aggregates left that were produced by deluded actions and defilements, but the stream of consciousness and the stream of unclouded psychophysical aggregates still exist.

By eliminating the causes, the deluded aggregates are reduced to nothing, and the liberation from them leads. To the disappearance of the suffering associated with them. This is liberation, which can be of two kinds: liberation, which consists simply in the destruction of all forms of suffering and their sources, and great, unsurpassed liberation, Buddhahood. The first is the destruction of all obstacles caused by foulness [on the path of liberation from the cycle of being], but not obstacles to direct comprehension of all objects of knowledge. The second is the highest step, the complete destruction of both defilements and obstacles to omniscience.

3) Fundamentals of Buddhism

3.1 Theory of dependent existence

There is a spontaneous and universal law of causality, which determines all phenomena of the spiritual and material world. This law (dharma or dhamma) operates spontaneously, without the help of a conscious guide.

According to this law, the occurrence of one particular phenomenon (cause) is accompanied by another particular phenomenon (effect). "There is a cause - there is an effect." The existence of everything is conditioned, that is, it has its own reason. Nothing happens by chance, without a reason. This theory is called the Dependent Origination Theory.

3.2 Karma theory

Karma is the material activity of a person and its consequences. It is one of the central concepts in the philosophy of Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism, where it underlies the cause-and-effect series (called in this case samsara).

Different religious traditions give slightly different philosophical interpretations of the concept of karma, but the basic concept remains the same. According to this concept, through the law of karma, the consequences of actions create past, present and future experience thus making the individual responsible for his own life and for the pain and pleasure it brings both to the individual himself and to those around him. The results or "fruits of karma" are called karma-phala. Often karma is confused with the fruits of karma, which leads to fatalism. An example of this error is statements like "This is my karma."

In religions that accept reincarnation, the law of karma also applies to the so-called. past and future lives of the individual. It is believed that the activities performed by an individual in the liberated state of moksha do not produce bad or good karma.

In the Buddhist theory of karma, this word means "intentional action" and not any action. In Buddhist terminology, karma never refers to its consequences; its consequences are known as the "fruit" or "outcome" of karma (kamma-phala or kamma-vipaka). An intention can be relatively good or bad, just as a wish can be relatively good or bad. So karma can be relatively good or bad. Good karma (kusala) produces good consequences, and bad karma (akusala) produces bad consequences.

3.3 The doctrine of universal change and impermanence

The theory of the transitory nature of things also follows from the doctrine of the dependence of the origin of everything that exists. All things are subject to change and decay. Since everything that exists is generated by certain conditions, it is liquidated with the disappearance of these conditions. Everything that has a beginning has an end.

Many poets and philosophers spoke about the fact that all living things and the world of things are transient. The Buddha summarized these views logically in the doctrine of impermanence. His followers developed it further - into the theory of instantaneity (kshanik-vada), according to which everything that exists is not only conditioned and therefore impermanent, but also things are not the same even for a short period of time, exist as such during only one indivisible moment of time.

According to Buddhist ideas, the law of variability is universal: neither a person nor any other being - animate or inanimate - is excluded from the scope of its action. Most people believe that a certain substance lives in a person, called the soul (atman), which continues to exist, despite all the changes undergone by the body, which existed before birth and will exist after death, moving from one body to another.

Conclusion

So, according to people who profess Buddhism, the phenomenal world around us and all of us as part of it is nothing more than a kind of illusion, although this illusion exists objectively. The fact is that a person perceives the world as if through the prism of his sensations, but these sensations are not the result of the subjective ideas of the individual, but a completely objective fact, a consequence of the excitement of dharmas, particles of the universe. The word "dharma" (in Pali - dhamma) in Buddhism has many meanings. They call both the doctrine as a whole, and the Buddhist law, and, finally, the first particles of the universe. These particles are somewhat reminiscent of the elements of the spiritual principle of purusha in the Samkhya system, but they are distinguished by greater internal capacity and diversity. Among them are the dharmas of pure consciousness, sensual dharmas (rupa), that is, those associated with visual, auditory and other perceptions and sensations of a person, dharmas of the psyche that give rise to emotions, and some others. In total such dharmas in ordinary person, according to various schools-sects of Buddhism, 75-100, or even more.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. “Buddhism. Four Noble Truths. M: Eksmo, 2002

Didur Andrey

Buddhism is the world's first religion. In its distribution across the globe Buddhism has become a religion of various peoples with completely different traditions. Without understanding Buddhism, it is impossible to understand the cultures of the East. The ideas of Buddhism found sympathy in the West as well. For example, the eminent scientist Albert Einstein believed that Buddhism would become the religion of the future.

It should be noted that based on the etymology of the word "religion" (from lat. r eligio, religare, religere - reverence, connection, restoration of connection with God) classical buddhism, in the strict sense, cannot be attributed to religion, since there was no place for God in the atheistic system of the Buddha. Many researchers rightly consider early Buddhism to be only a philosophical doctrine. The acquisition by Buddhism of the features of religion (recognition of the existence of a god or gods, cult, canons, etc.) began only after the death of Buddha.

The relevance of the study of Buddhism is due to the fact that various occult teachings and destructive organizations, such as theosophy and the Ole Nydahl sect, speculate on its soil. They are trying to adapt to the mentality of the Europeans in order to impose their worldview on them and thereby further tear them away from their Christian roots.

A certain difficulty in the study of Buddhism is the following circumstance. According to the well-known orientalist E. A. Torchinov, “no “Buddhism” as such, “Buddhism in general” has existed and does not exist.” Back in 1918, O. O. Rozenberg, a classic of Russian and world Buddhology, drew attention to the fact that Buddhism “is historically presented in the form of various currents and directions, sometimes extremely different from each other and more reminiscent of different religions than different confessions within the same religion. ".

“But, nevertheless, there is a certain range of ideas that in one form or another, with one or another accentuation, are characteristic of all areas of Buddhism (although their interpretation may be different).” We bring to your attention precisely these basic provisions.

From our point of view, when analyzing Buddhism, it is advisable to use a systematic approach, that is, to consider Buddhism from the point of view of the most important philosophical categories - ontology, cosmology, anthropology. We will also focus on the specific doctrine of Buddhism - the doctrine of the four noble truths.

Without going into particulars, the analysis of which would take considerable time, we will try to highlight the most important conceptual provisions. At the same time, we also consider it necessary to compare the conclusions drawn in the course of the study with Christian doctrine in order to more clearly highlight the contradictions and point out the inability of Buddhism to satisfy the highest religious needs of man.

Ontology

So, the first question that we will consider is ontology, the doctrine of being. The main components of Buddhist ontology are:

1) the doctrine of the non-existence of the individual "I" or soul (atman), - anatmavada;

2) dharma theory;

3) the doctrine of instantaneity.

Buddhism denies the existence of the soul and, as a result, does not recognize the existence of a unique inimitable personality, considering it only an illusion.

The doctrine of dharmas ( abhidharma) is a basic concept of Buddhism. One of the meanings of dharmas is the primary elements of being and the psychophysical elements of the life of a person, point moments of being. Dharmas are eternal, constantly appearing and disappearing.

These constantly arising and disappearing non-substantial dharmas in their totality form a stream ( Santana), which is empirical and allows you to detect the subject as a "living being". Thus, any being, including the human person, is understood in Buddhism not as an unchanging entity (soul, atman), but as a stream of constantly changing elementary psychophysical states.

Another important feature of the Buddhist worldview is closely connected with the theory of dharmas, namely the doctrine of instantaneity ( kshanikavada). The doctrine of instantaneity follows directly from the position of the universality of impermanence. It states that each dharma (and, accordingly, the whole complex of dharmas, that is, a living being) exists only for one negligible moment, in the next moment being replaced by a new dharma, causally conditioned by the previous one. As the famous song says: “Everything in this raging world is ghostly, there is only a moment, hold on to it. There is only a moment between the past and the future, it is he who is called "life".

Thus, from the point of view of Buddhism, being is a process that does not rely on any unchanging foundation. Such an ontology can safely be called an anti-ontology.

Cosmology

Cosmology, the study of the universe, characterizes the world as a constantly changing cyclical process.

“Cosmic time is cyclical and without beginning, that is, none of the cycles can be considered the first. The world has not been created by anyone, the idea of divine creation is fundamentally rejected by Buddhism.

In each cycle (kalpa), four successive time stages (yuga) are distinguished: the creation of the world, its formation, decline and decay (pralaya). They last for many thousands of Earth years, and then repeat in the next cycle.

“The driving cause of these changes (as well as the entire cosmic cycle) is the total karma of beings,” that is, the result, the total energy of all actions performed in life.

Anthropology

The central problem of Buddhism is man and his liberation.

Speaking about the ontology of Buddhism, we have already mentioned that a person is a constantly changing stream of dharmas and is revealed as a living being only in sensory experience.

From the point of view of Buddhism, the feeling of "I" and the attachment to "I" arising from it is the source of all other attachments, passions and attractions, everything that draws a living being into the quagmire of samsaric existence - the cycle of births and deaths, main characteristic which is suffering.

Personality is denied in Buddhism. According to Buddhists, a person is only a name for designating groups of psychophysical elements (dharmas) connected in a certain order. "A person in Buddhism is not an embodied soul ... He is a stream of states (dharmas), a series of frames (instants)." "Buddhism is convinced that there is no 'personality', there is only the illusion of a 'soul'."

Four noble truths

Among the basic ideas of Buddhism is the doctrine of the four noble truths. “They are formulations that are quite comparable with the formulations of a doctor who diagnoses a patient and prescribes treatment. This metaphor is far from accidental, since the Buddha saw himself as a doctor called to heal living beings from the suffering of samsara and prescribe a cure leading to recovery - nirvana.

So let's look at these truths.

The first noble truth is the truth about suffering.

“Everything is suffering. Birth is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering. Connection with the unpleasant is suffering, separation from the pleasant is suffering.

Buddhism begins with a statement about universal suffering, and even with an equal sign between it and being. Suffering is a fundamental characteristic of being as such. “Suffering and being are synonymous, and wherever a person’s gaze turns, he sees in the past and future an endless, inexhaustible sea of tears and an endless existence under different types i.e. suffering.

The second noble truth is the truth about the cause of suffering. This cause is attraction, desire, attachment to life in the broadest sense, the will to live. “Inclination gives rise to suffering - if there were no inclinations and a thirst for life, then there would be no suffering. And all nature is permeated with this thirst. It is, as it were, the core of the life activity of every being.

The third noble truth is the truth about the cessation of suffering, that is, about nirvana. The Buddha stated that although suffering permeates all levels of samsaric existence, there is nonetheless a state in which suffering is no more and is attainable. This state is nirvana.

The cause of suffering is desire. The essence of the third noble truth follows logically from the Buddha's teaching on the nature and origin of evil. If desire is evil, then in order to stop evil it is necessary to eliminate its root cause - any interest and will to live. In fact, we are talking about the complete cessation of being.

"The very word nirvana(Pali: nibbana) goes back to the Sanskrit root nir with the meaning of "extinguishing", "fading" (for example, the extinction of a lamp or the cessation of the waves of the sea).

It is difficult to say what the Buddha himself understood by nirvana. Most often, he gave evasive answers to his students: “Man sees a lot, hears a lot here,” he said, “dreams about a lot; the destruction of all desires and cravings for things dear to man, this is the unchanging state of Nirvana. Uncertainty gave rise to new questions, but the Buddha categorically stated: “For the disappeared there are no more forms (being); for him there is no more than that, thanks to which they exist, and if everything is cut off, then all disputes are finished, circumcised.

The fourth noble truth is the truth about the path ( marga), leading to the cessation of suffering, that is, the Noble Eightfold Path.

This path is twofold. On the one hand, psycho-physical exercises, in terms of methods, are almost identical with the yoga system. “But on the other hand, self-sacrifice and love for everything that exists. However, this second path is, as it were, a part of the first, a special psychophysical exercise. Love, mercy, compassion - all this for a Buddhist is not a feeling, because ... feelings should not remain in his soul, but only the result, a consequence of the complete loss of a sense of his individuality and his personal desires.

The difference between Buddhist “compassion” and the feeling of love preached in Christianity is that a Christian loves another, for he appreciates in him a real reflection of God. A Buddhist is called upon to be friendly to a "man" precisely because that simply does not exist, and being angry at an empty place means only to increase one's karma.

Summarizing our presentation, we can draw the following conclusions.

Even with a cursory glance at Buddhism, its fundamental difference from Christianity is evident.

According to the teaching last world was created by the All-good Creator - God, who wished to share the joy of being with rational free beings. This world is a historical phenomenon, as it was created in timeand exists insofar as it is permeated with uncreated divine energies.According to the cyclical conceptBuddhism the world exists forever, periodically collapsing and re-emerging. If we take into account that everything is non-substantial, and there is only a negligible moment, then a natural conclusion follows about the meaninglessness of such existence.

The statement about the eternal non-substantiality, variability, impermanence, phenomenality, ephemeral nature of everything that exists runs into a legitimate objection. Such non-existence is impossible to imagine without relying on something permanent and unchanging. If the world changes, then it has a beginning.

Unlike Buddhism, Christianity considers a person not as a random set of dharmas, but as a god-like being, called to transform himself and creation, to inherit eternal life in the Kingdom of Heaven, while remaining himself, a unique inimitable personality.

Although “Buddhism does not raise the question of the origins of the world, of man, and of the primary origins of suffering,” its undoubted merit lies in the fact that for the first time in human history such a strong word was said about suffering. Unfortunately, the human mind, clouded by sin, is unable to draw correct conclusions from this observation. Buddhism is a natural consequence of the rejection of the Indian religious tradition from God, the Creator-Almighty.

As Christians, we must respect human freedom, one of the features of the image of God, respect foreign culture. At the same time, in the face of the world and those who believe that all religions are equally saving, expressing one higher truth, we must testify to the Truth with a capital letter, that other teachings are not able to help a person in fulfilling his calling.

Andrey Didur, student of the Khabarovsk Theological Seminary.

Report read at the scientific-practical seminar "Buddhism in Russia: history and modernity." Khabarovsk Theological Seminary, February 27, 2010.

Introduction 1

1. General concepts 3

2. The Four Noble Truths Revealed by the Buddha 9

3. Five precepts-landmarks of Buddhism 16

Conclusion 17

References 18

Introduction

Buddhism is the oldest of the three world religions. Christianity is younger than him by five, and Islam by as much as twelve centuries. The main number of his followers live in the countries of South, Southeast and East Asia: Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China (as well as the Chinese population of Singapore and Malaysia), Mongolia, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Cambodia, Myanmar (Burma ), Thailand, Laos. WITH late XIX- early XX century. followers of Buddhism appeared in the countries of Europe and in the USA: today, almost all of the significant trends and schools that exist in the East are represented there. It is difficult to determine the total number of Buddhists in the world: such censuses have not been carried out anywhere, and they are contrary to the ethical and legal norms of many countries. However, it can be said very approximately that in the world today there are about 400 million lay people who profess Buddhism, and about 1 million monks and nuns. surrounded by very gifted students. This gave him the opportunity for 45 years to show beings the way to the full disclosure of the mind, which was manifested in the variety of means given to him. Kangyur - a collection of the Buddha's own words, written down after his death - is 108 volumes containing 84,000 useful instructions. The commentaries of the students that appeared later make up another 254 volumes, each at least two centimeters thick, they are called Tengyur. It is from the wealth of methods that one should understand the last words of the Buddha, which he said at the age of 80, before leaving the body: "I can die happily: I have not left a single teaching in my closed palm. Everything that is useful to you, I have already given ".

As follows from this statement, he gave something that can be directly applied in life. When asked why and what he teaches, the Buddha invariably answered: "I teach because you and all beings strive to be happy and want to avoid pain. I teach how things are - things as they are." And although later these teachings became the basis of a number of schools, these schools are united by the fact that all of them, each at its own level of understanding the life and teachings of the Buddha, are aimed at the comprehensive development of a person - the meaningful use of body, speech and mind. 1

Since the Buddhist teaching is multifaceted and based on experience and not on faith, it is not enough to confine ourselves to describing its content. Its features become visible only in comparison with other worldviews. At the same time, approaching the teachings of the Buddha is worth freeing yourself from too rigid ideas, since the fullness of his wisdom cannot be described as "this, not that."

1. General concepts

Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in India in 6-
5th century BC Included in San Jiao - one of the three main religions of China.
The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name of Buddha, i.e. awakened or enlightened.

The biography of Buddha reflects the fate of a real person framed by myths and legends, which over time almost completely pushed aside the historical figure of the founder of Buddhism. The son of a prince from the Shakya (Sakya) tribe, Siddharta Gautama was born in the 6th century. BC e. Miraculously conceived (his mother Maya saw in a dream that a white elephant entered her side), the boy was born in an equally unusual way - from his mother's side. Distinguished by his extraordinary intelligence and abilities, Gautama stood out noticeably among his peers. An extraordinary future was predicted to him by the wise elders. Surrounded by luxury and fun, he knew only the joys of life. Imperceptibly, Gautama grew up, then got married and had a son. Nothing clouded his happiness. But one day, having left the palace, the young prince saw an emaciated patient covered with ulcers, then a wretched old man bent over the years, then a funeral procession and, finally, an ascetic immersed in deep and difficult thoughts. These four meetings, the legend says, radically changed the worldview of the careless prince. He learned that in the world there are misfortunes, diseases, death, that the world is ruled by suffering. With bitterness, Gautama left his father's house. Having shaved his head, dressed in coarse clothes, he began to wander, betraying himself to self-torture and self-flagellation, trying to redeem his young years of a luxurious and carefree life, striving to know the great truth. So it took about 7 years.
And then one day, sitting under the tree of Bodhi (knowledge) and, as usual, indulging in deep self-knowledge, Gautama suddenly "saw the light." He knew the secrets and inner causes of the cycle of life, he knew the four sacred truths: suffering rules the world; their cause is life itself with its passions and desires; you can get away from suffering only by plunging into nirvana; there is a way, a method by which he who knows the truth can get rid of suffering and reach nirvana. Having learned these four sacred truths, Gautama, who became the Buddha, the Enlightened One, sat under the sacred tree for several days, unable to move. This was taken advantage of by the evil spirit Mara, who began to tempt the Buddha, urging him not to proclaim the truth to people, but to plunge directly into nirvana. But the Buddha steadfastly endured all the temptations and continued his great feat. Arriving at Sarnath near Benares, he gathered around him five ascetics who became his disciples, and read to them his first sermon. In this Benares sermon of the Buddha, the foundations of his teaching were briefly outlined. 2 The Buddha understood that all people are not the same and have different characters and inclinations, and therefore he never put forward any one dogmatic system, but taught various systems and methods depending on the individuality of the student. He always encouraged people to test them for themselves and take nothing for granted.

The Buddha in his discourses focused on practical matters deliverance from suffering and did not dwell on philosophical problems. The Buddha believed that when a person is suffering, it is a waste of time to discuss abstract issues. He even listed a number of questions, the answers to which are useless for spiritual growth. For example, is the world eternal; whether the world is finite; Are mind and body the same or not?

But at the same time, the Buddha never avoided arguing on these issues with representatives of other views and always encouraged his disciples not to take their words on faith, but to seek the truth on their own: “Rely on the meaning, not on words. Rely on Primordial Wisdom and not on the ordinary mind. Rely on absolute truth, not relative truth, rely on doctrine, not personality.” 3

Buddhism developed in India in the general context of Indian philosophy and religion, which also included Hinduism and Jainism. Although Buddhism has some common features with these religions, however, there are fundamental differences. First of all, Buddhism, unlike Hinduism, does not contain the idea of caste, but, as noted above, it contains the idea of equality of all people in terms of their having the same opportunities. Like Hinduism, Buddhism speaks of karma, but the very idea of karma is completely different here. It is not an idea of fate or fate, like the Islamic idea of qizmat, or God's will. It does not exist in classical Hinduism or Buddhism, although in modern popular Hinduism it sometimes acquires such a meaning due to the influence of Islam. In classical Hinduism, the idea of karma is closer to the idea of duty. People are born in different living and social conditions due to belonging to different castes (to the caste of warriors, rulers, servants) or are born as women. Their karma or duty is to follow the classical patterns of behavior described in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the great epics of Hindu India, in specific life situations. If one acts like a perfect wife or a perfect servant, for example, then in future lives his position is likely to be better.

At the age of 80, the Buddha passed away. But the disciples, even after the death of the Teacher, continued to preach his teaching throughout India. They created monastic communities where this teaching was preserved and developed. These are the facts of the real biography of Buddha - the man who became the founder of a new religion. 4

Buddhism originated in northeastern India in areas of pre-Bahmin culture. Buddhism quickly spread throughout India and reached its peak at the end of the 1st millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. Buddhism had a great influence on Hinduism, which was reborn from Brahmanism, but was supplanted by Hinduism by the 12th century AD. virtually disappeared from India. The main reason for this was the opposition of the ideas of Buddhism to the caste system consecrated by Brahmanism. At the same time, starting from the 3rd century BC, it covered Southeast and Central Asia and partly Central
Asia and Siberia.

Hinayana (Small vehicle) established itself mainly in the southeastern countries and received the name of southern Buddhism, and ^ Mahayana (Great Vehicle) - in northern countries, having received the name of northern Buddhism. If the Hinayana claimed that everything said by the Buddha is true, then the Mahayana said that everything that is true is what the Buddha said. 5

The spread of Buddhism contributed to the creation of syncretic cultural complexes, the totality of which forms the so-called Buddhist culture.

A characteristic feature of Buddhism is its ethical and practical orientation. From the very beginning, Buddhism opposed not only the significance of the external forms of religious life and, above all, ritualism, but also against abstract dogmatic quests, characteristic, in particular, of the Brahmanic-Vedic tradition. The problem of the existence of the individual was put forward as a central problem in Buddhism.

Suffering and liberation are presented in Buddhism as different states of a single being: suffering is a state of being of the manifested, liberation is of the unmanifested. Both, being inseparable, appear, however, in early Buddhism as a psychological reality, in developed forms of Buddhism - as a cosmic reality.

Buddhism imagines liberation primarily as the destruction of desires, more precisely, the quenching of their passion. The Buddhist principle of the so-called middle (middle) path recommends avoiding extremes - both attraction to sensual pleasure, and the complete suppression of this attraction. In the moral-emotional sphere, Buddhism is dominated by tolerance, relativity, from the standpoint of which moral prescriptions are not binding and can be violated.

Very early in Buddhism, a sangha appeared - a monastic community, from which a kind of religious organization grew over time.

« An important feature The Buddhist idea of the world is an indissoluble fusion in it of the features of the real, that is, prompted by direct observation, correctly recorded by a human creature, with ideas, attitudes, beings and processes generated by religious fantasy. This fusion is so complete that here one could speak of the identity of the natural and the supernatural, if the latter were not always the main and determining factor for the Buddhist. 6
^

2. The Four Noble Truths Revealed by the Buddha

Life is suffering. Birth and aging, sickness and death, separation from a loved one and union with an unloved one, an unattained goal and an unsatisfied desire - all this is suffering. Suffering comes from the thirst for being, enjoyment, creation, power, eternal life, and so on. Destroy this insatiable thirst, renounce desires, renounce earthly vanity - this is the way to the destruction of suffering. It is at the end of this path that lies complete release, nirvana.
The ultimate goal of Buddhism is deliverance from suffering and reincarnation. The Buddha said: "Both in the past and in the present, I say only one thing: suffering and the annihilation of suffering." Despite the negative initial position of this formula, the goal set in it has positive aspect because it is possible to put an end to suffering only by realizing one's human potential for kindness and happiness. One who attains the state of complete self-realization is said to have attained nirvana. Nirvana is the greatest good in Buddhism, the ultimate and highest good. It is both a concept and a state. As a concept, it reflects a certain vision of the realization of human capabilities, outlines the contours and forms of an ideal life; as a state, over time, it is embodied in a person striving for it. 7

In Buddhism, a righteous life is highly valued; living virtuously is a necessary condition for attaining nirvana. But a highly moral life is only a part of the human perfection necessary for immersion in nirvana. Virtue is one of the main elements of this ideal, but it cannot be self-sufficient and needs to be supplemented.

This other necessary element- wisdom, ability to perceive. "Wisdom" in Buddhism means a deep philosophical understanding of the human condition. It requires an insight into the nature of reality, achieved through long and deep reflection. This is one type of gnosis, or direct realization of the truth, which deepens over time and eventually culminates in the enlightenment experienced by the Buddha. So, nirvana is the unity of virtue and wisdom; virtue and wisdom are necessary conditions for nirvana, having only one of them is not enough.

The truth perceived by the Buddha on the night of enlightenment, he subsequently expounded in his first sermon, which speaks of four positions, known as the Four Noble Truths. They state that:

life is suffering;
suffering is generated by desire or craving for pleasures;
suffering can be stopped;
there is a path that leads to freedom from suffering.

Buddha is sometimes compared to a healer who found a cure for the ailment of life.

According to ^ First Truth, suffering is an integral part of life, and defines the state of a person as a state of "dissatisfaction". It includes many types of suffering, beginning with the physical, such as birth, aging, illness, and death. Most often they are associated with physical pain, and there is a much more serious problem - the inevitability of repeating this cycle in each subsequent life, both for the person himself and for his loved ones. People are powerless in the face of these realities and, despite the latest discoveries in medicine, are still subject to illness and accidents due to their bodily nature. In addition to physical pain, the Truth of suffering points to its emotional and psychological forms: "grief, grief, sadness and despair." They can sometimes present more painful problems than physical suffering: few people have a life without grief and sorrow, while there are many difficult psychological conditions, it is impossible to completely get rid of.

In addition to these obvious examples, the Truth of Suffering mentions a more subtle form of suffering that can be defined as "existential." This follows from the statement “The unattainability of the desired is suffering”, i.e. failure, disappointment, disillusionment experienced when hopes do not come true and reality does not correspond to our desires. The Buddha was not a pessimist and, of course, he knew from his own experience when he was a young prince that there can be pleasant moments in life. The problem, however, is that Good times don't last forever. Suffering in Buddhism has a more abstract and deeper meaning: it indicates that even a life devoid of hardships may not bring satisfaction and self-realization.

The Buddha pointed out that human nature cannot be the basis of permanent happiness. Suffering is woven into the very fabric of our being.

Many believe that the assessment of the human condition in Buddhism is pessimistic, but Buddhists argue that their religion is not pessimistic or optimistic, but realistic, that the Truth of suffering only objectively states the facts. If she seems pessimistic, it is due to the long-standing tendency of people to avoid unpleasant truths and "look for the bright side in everything." That is why the Buddha noted that the Truth of suffering is extremely difficult to understand. It is like a person realizing that he is seriously ill, which no one wants to admit, and that there is no cure.

If life is suffering, how does it arise? ^ Second Noble Truth - The truth of emergence- explains that suffering arises from craving or "thirst for life".

Passion ignites suffering like fire fuels firewood. In his sermon, the Buddha spoke of the fact that all human experience is "blazing" with desires. Fire is an apt metaphor for desire, as it consumes what feeds it without being satisfied. It spreads quickly, moves to new objects and hurts, like unsatisfied desires.

It is the desire to live, to enjoy life, that is the cause of rebirth.

The truth of arising states that craving manifests itself in three main forms, the first of which is the craving for sensual pleasures. It takes the form of a desire for pleasure through objects of perception, such as pleasant tastes, sensations, smells, sounds. The second is the desire for "prosperity". It is about the deep, instinctive longing for existence that propels us into new lives and new experiences. The third type of manifestation of passionate desire is the desire not for possession, but for “destruction”. This is the reverse side of the thirst for life, embodied in the instinct of denial, the rejection of what is unpleasant and undesirable. The desire for destruction can also lead to self-denial and self-denial. Low self-esteem in extreme forms can lead to suicide.

But does this mean that any desire is evil? Here "desire" has a narrower meaning - a desire perverted in some sense by excess or bad purpose. It is usually directed towards sensual arousal and pleasure.

However, not all desires are like this, and Buddhist sources often speak of positive desires. To strive for a positive goal for oneself and for others (for example, to achieve nirvana), to wish happiness to others, to want the world that remains after you to become better - these are examples of positive and beneficial desires.

If bad desires restrain and fetter a person, then good ones give him strength and freedom.

^ Third Noble Truth - The truth of termination. It says that when you get rid of the thirst for life, suffering stops and nirvana comes. As we know from the story of the Buddha's life, nirvana has two forms: the first occurs during life (“nirvana with a remainder”), and the second after death (“nirvana without a remainder”). The Buddha reached nirvana during his lifetime at the age of 35. When he was 80, he plunged into the last nirvana, from which there is no return through rebirth.

« Nirvana literally means "extinguishing" or "blowing out", similar to how a candle flame goes out. But what exactly is fading away? Maybe it is the soul of a person, his "I", his individuality? It cannot be the soul, since Buddhism generally denies its existence. It is not “I” or self-consciousness, although nirvana certainly involves a radical change in the state of consciousness, freed from attachment to “I” and “mine”. In fact, the flame of the triad is extinguished - passion, hatred and delusion, which leads to reincarnation. This is a psychological and moral phenomenon, a transformed state of a person, which is characterized by peace, deep spiritual joy, compassion, refined and penetrating perception. Negative mental states and emotions such as doubt, anxiety, worry, and fear are absent from an enlightened mind.

Some or all of these qualities are inherent in saints in many religions, to some extent, ordinary people may also possess some of them. However, the Enlightened Ones, like the Buddha, are inherent in full.

What happens to a person when he dies? There is no clear answer to this question in the early sources. Difficulties in understanding this arise precisely in connection with the last nirvana, when the flame of the thirst for life goes out, rebirths stop and a person who has achieved enlightenment is not born again. The Buddha said that asking where the Enlightened One is after death is like asking where the flame goes when it is blown out. The flame, of course, does not “go away” anywhere, the combustion process simply stops. Getting rid of the thirst for life and ignorance is tantamount to cutting off the supply of oxygen necessary for combustion.

^ Fourth Noble Truth - The truth of the path - explains how the transition to nirvana should take place. In the hustle and bustle of everyday life, few people stop to think about the most fulfilling way of life.

The Buddha believed that the highest form of life is a life that leads to the perfection of virtue and knowledge, and the "eightfold path" defines a way of life with which one can put this into practice. It is also called the "middle way" because it passes between two extremes: a life of excess and strict asceticism. It includes eight steps, divided into three categories - morality, concentration (meditation) and wisdom. They define the parameters of the human good. 8

"Four Noble Truths" in many ways resemble the principles of treatment: medical history, diagnosis, recognition of the possibility of recovery, prescription of treatment. It is no coincidence that Buddhist texts compare the Buddha with a healer who is busy not with general reasoning, but with the practical cure of people from spiritual suffering. And the Buddha encourages his followers to constantly work on themselves in the name of salvation, and not waste time on ranting about subjects that they do not know about. own experience. He compares a lover of abstract conversations with a fool who, instead of letting the arrow that hit him, begins to talk about who shot it, what material it was made of, etc. 9

Although the "path" consists of eight parts, one should not think of them as stages that a person goes through, approaching nirvana, leaving them behind. On the contrary, the eight steps represent the paths of continuous improvement of "morality", "meditation" and "wisdom".

1) "correct views" means first the recognition of Buddhist teachings, and then their empirical confirmation;

2) "correct thinking" - commitment to the formation of correct attitudes;

3) "correct speech" - speaking the truth, a manifestation of thoughtfulness and interest in the conversation,

4) “right behavior” - refraining from bad deeds, such as killing, stealing or bad behavior (sensual pleasures).

5) "the right way to maintain life" means the rejection of actions that harm others;

6) "correct application of forces" - gaining control over one's thoughts and developing positive mindsets;

7) "correct memory" - the development of constant understanding;

8) "correct concentration" - achieving a state of the deepest peace of mind, which is the aim of various methods of concentration of consciousness and integration of the personality. 10

Thus, the Buddha pointed to the existence of an eightfold or middle path that leads a person out of the "wheel of life". This path includes 3 main components: a culture of behavior (correct thought, word action), a culture of meditation (correct awareness and concentration) and a culture of wisdom (correct views).

The culture of behavior is the five basic commandments.

The culture of meditation is a system of exercises leading to the achievement of inner peace, detachment from the world and the curbing of passions.

The culture of wisdom is the knowledge of the four noble truths.

In Buddhism, three concepts are most developed:

-the concept of the "wheel of life" set in motion by the law of dependent origination;
-the concept of the eightfold, or middle, path;
-the concept of Nirvana, or entry into the cosmic body of the Buddha.

All three concepts are directly related to the transformation of human consciousness, with the transition from corpuscular logical thinking to wave figurative thinking, the latter develops in the process of meditation (samadhi, vipassana, dhyana, yoga). eleven

The Buddhist idea of the human soul is also very peculiar. It is not considered as a whole, but is considered a combination different particles- dharm. However, these particles are the basis not only of spiritual substances, but also of material bodies and phenomena. After the death of a person, dharmas (both material and mental) disintegrate, in order to then, in accordance with the principle of karma, unite in a new combination.

The sacred book of Buddhism is the Tipitaka (lit. in the Pali language - “three baskets”; Sanskrit version - Tripitaka). It consists of three parts. The first of these, the Vinaya Pitaka, contains the disciplinary rules that must be followed by monks in Buddhist communities. The second part - Sutta-pitaka tells about the conversations that the Buddha had with his disciples and which were recorded from the words of his cousin and one of the followers - Ananda. In the third part - Abidhamma-pitaka (Abidharme-pitaka), which to a certain extent is a commentary on the Sutta-pitaka, systematization and interpretation of the main tenets of Buddhism is given.

The Buddhist cult is quite simple. It lacks the complex rituals characteristic of Brahminism, there are no sacrifices. Monks who read the canonical Buddhist texts send a cult. It is characteristic that the laity do not participate in divine services. 12

3. Five precepts-landmarks of Buddhism

In Buddhism, it occupies one of the most important places the so-called denial of the unity of the individual. Each personality is presented as an accumulation of “changeable” forms.

According to the statements of the Buddha, a person consists of five elements: corporeality, sensations, desires, ideas and knowledge. Just as great is the significance of the teaching about the salvation of the soul, finding peace for it, in the original Buddhism. The soul breaks up, according to the teachings of Buddhism, into separate elements (skandas), but in order for the same person to be incarnated in a new birth, it is necessary that the skandas unite in the same way as they were united in the previous incarnation. The cessation of the cycle of reincarnations, the exit from samsara, the final and eternal rest - this is an important element in the interpretation of salvation in Buddhism.

The soul, in the Buddhist view, is an individual consciousness that carries the entire spiritual world of a person, transforms in the process of personal rebirth and strives for calm in nirvana. At the same time, the achievement of nirvana is impossible without the suppression of desires, which is achieved by means of controlling views, speech, behavior, lifestyle, effort, attention, and complete concentration and determination. The sum of all actions and thoughts in all previous rebirths, which can only be roughly described by the word “fate”, and literally means the law of retribution, is a force that determines a specific type of rebirth and is called karma. All actions in life are determined by karma, but a person has a certain freedom of choice in deeds, thoughts, actions, which makes the path to salvation possible, to exit the circle of transformations into an enlightened state.

social role Buddhism is defined by the idea of human equality in suffering and in the right to salvation. While still alive, a person could voluntarily embark on the righteous path by joining a monastic community (sanghaya), which means renouncing caste, family, property, joining the world with strict rules and prohibitions (253 prohibitions), five of which are obligatory for every Buddhist.

Thus, unlike the monks, the laity was given a simple code of ethics Pancha Shila (Five Precepts), which boiled down to the following:

Refrain from killing.
Refrain from stealing.
Refrain from fornication.
Refrain from lying.
Refrain from stimulating drinks.

In addition to these precepts, "upasakas" had to be faithful to the Buddha, his teachings and order. 13

Conclusion

Buddhism is a religion covering about a quarter of the world's population, as well as occupying the minds of a large number of Westerners.

Buddhism gives quite reasonable answers to those questions that other world religions have not bothered to answer. He gives the common man the hope that his fate is in his hands. And most importantly, it does not just give hope, but explains in an accessible language, lays out the path to salvation, step by step, difficult, but true.

Buddhism substantiates the inevitability of the death of all things and thereby denies its value to man. The possibility of improvement in the field is approved human consciousness, Buddhism considers this process as overcoming all human desires, passions, feelings. He makes extensive use of emotional means of influencing consciousness, skillfully uses especially tenacious folk legends and traditions, resorts to life examples and comparisons, putting artistic creativity at the service of his teaching and creating an impressive cult.

And of course, one should not forget about the huge contribution of Buddhism to culture, science, history, medicine and the spiritual world of people.

Kochetov, on the other hand, believes that "the peacefulness of many supporters of Buddhism ...... can play a certain role in the modern world in the fight against the threat of a new super-destructive war" 14 .
^

Bibliography

Damien Keown. Buddhism. - M .: "The whole world", 2001.
Malherbe M. Religions of mankind. - M.: Rudomino, 1997.
Ruzavin G.I. Fundamentals of the philosophy of history. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2004.
Kochetov A.N. Buddhism. - M.: Politizdat., 1983
Encyclopedia for children. Part 1, Religions of the World - 3rd ed., Revised. And additional .. - M .: Avanta +, 1999
Tutorial. Puchkov P.I., Kazmina O.E. Religions of the modern world. - M.: Nauka, 1997
Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East. - M.: Book House University, 2004
Zelenkov M.Yu. world religions. History and modernity. Tutorial. - M.: Law Institute of MIIT, 2003
Lama Ole Nydahl "The way things really are." - M .: Diamond Way, 2001

Philosophy of Buddhism and Its Modern Meaning

Introduction

1. Features of the philosophy of Buddhism

1.1. Philosophy in Ancient India

1.2. Buddhism as a World Religion

2. The modern meaning of the philosophy of Buddhism

2.1. Experience natural man as a premise of the Buddha's teaching

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The theme of this work: "The philosophy of Buddhism and its modern significance.", due to its relevance. Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in India in the 6th-5th centuries BC. Included in San Jiao - one of the three main religions of China. The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name of Buddha, i.e. awakened or enlightened.

Buddhism originated in northeastern India in areas of pre-Bahmin culture. Buddhism quickly spread throughout India and reached its peak at the end of the 1st millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. Buddhism had a great influence on Hinduism, which was reborn from Brahmanism, but was supplanted by Hinduism by the 12th century AD. virtually disappeared from India. The main reason for this was the opposition of the ideas of Buddhism to the caste system consecrated by Brahmanism. At the same time, starting from the 3rd century BC, it covered Southeast and Central Asia and partially Central Asia and Siberia.

Hinayana established itself mainly in the southeastern countries and received the name of southern Buddhism, and Mahayana - in the northern countries, received the name of northern Buddhism.

The spread of Buddhism contributed to the creation of syncretic cultural complexes, the totality of which forms the so-called Buddhist culture.

In Buddhism, there is no concept of responsibility and guilt as something absolute, a reflection of this is the absence in Buddhism of a clear line between the ideals of religious and secular morality and, in particular, the softening or rejection of asceticism in its usual form. The moral ideal of Buddhism appears as an absolute non-harm to others (ahinsa), resulting from general softness, kindness, and a sense of perfect satisfaction. In the intellectual sphere of Buddhism, the distinction between sensual and rational forms of cognition is eliminated and the practice of so-called contemplative reflection (meditation) is established, the result of which is the experience of the integrity of being (non-distinguishing between internal and external), complete self-absorption. The practice of contemplative reflection thus serves not so much as a means of knowing the world, but as one of the main means of transforming the psyche and psychophysiology of the individual. As a specific method of contemplative reflection, dhyanas, which have been called Buddhist yoga, are especially popular. The state of perfect satisfaction and self-deepening, absolute independence of inner being - the positive equivalent of extinguishing desires - is liberation, or nirvana.

1. Features of the philosophy of Buddhism

1.1 Philosophy in ancient India

Historians single out real history Ancient India following eight periods:

1) the primitive communal system of the natives (Dravids and Kushites) of Hindustan;

2) the proto-Indian civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (second millennium BC), inscriptions were found - proto-Indian writing;

3) the invasion of the primitive communal tribes of the Aryans (from the Sanskrit agua - “noble”) from the northwest into the Indus and Ganges valleys in the second half of the second millennium BC. and their enslavement of the natives;

4) Aryan early class states of the "Bronze Age" of the first half of the first millennium BC, now and then at war with each other;

5) the period of the rise of the state of Magadha (middle of the first millennium BC);

6) the period of the rise of the Maurya state (322 - 185 BC);

7) Kushan period (1st century BC - 4th century);

8) Gupta period (IV-VI centuries).

The emergence of philosophy in ancient India dates back to about the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., when states began to form on the territory of modern India. At the head of each such state was a raja, whose power was based on the power of the landowning aristocracy and tribal priestly nobility (brahmins). The vestiges of patriarchal relations between the ruling classes and the oppressed were strong.

Ancient Indian society was divided into varnas - groups that later formed the basis of the caste system. There were four of them:

1) priestly varna (Brahmins);

2) varna of the military aristocracy (kshatriyas);

3) varna of farmers, artisans, merchants (vaishyas) and

4) lower varna (sudras). The Shudras were subordinate to the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas; they were not entitled to communal property, they were not accepted as members of the community, they did not participate in solving its affairs. The division into varnas was sanctified by religion. Well-born priestly families had a significant impact on society and were the bearers of education and special knowledge, influenced the development of religious ideology.

The oldest monument of Indian literature is the Vedas. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious outlook, with which already at that time some philosophical ideas about the world, about man and about moral life were combined. The Vedas are divided into four groups or parts. The oldest of these is the Samhitas. The works of the other groups are commentaries and additions to the Samhitas. Samhitas consist of four collections. The earliest of these is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (c. 1500 BC). The second part of the Vedas is the Brahmanas, a collection of ritual texts. The religion of Brahminism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the Vedas is the Aranyakas, containing the rules of conduct for hermits. The Vedas are completed by the Upanishads, the philosophical part itself, which arose around 1000 BC. e. Already during the period of domination of religious and mythological views, reflected in the Vedas and the Upanishads, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose and the formation of the first philosophical teachings, both idealistic and materialistic, began.

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