What is the peculiarity of the state organization of the Siberian Khanate. The conquest of the Siberian Khanate
In the vast expanses of the Siberian tundra and taiga, forest-steppe and black earth expanses, a population settled, hardly exceeding 200 thousand people by the time the Russians arrived. In the regions of the Amur and Primorye by the middle of the XVI century. about 30 thousand people lived. The ethnic and linguistic composition of the population of Siberia was very diverse. Very difficult conditions life in the tundra and taiga and the exceptional disunity of the population led to the extremely slow development of the productive forces among the peoples of Siberia. By the time the Russians arrived, most of them were still at various stages of the patriarchal-tribal system. Only the Siberian Tatars were at the stage of formation feudal relations.
In the economy of the northern peoples of Siberia, the leading place belonged to hunting and fishing. A supporting role was played by the collection of wild edible plants. Mansi and Khanty, like the Buryats and Kuznetsk Tatars, mined iron. The more backward peoples still used stone tools. A large family (yurts) consisted of 2 - 3 men or more. Sometimes several large families lived in numerous yurts. In the conditions of the North, such yurts were independent settlements - rural communities.
Since. Obi lived Ostyaks (Khanty). Their main occupation was fishing. Fish was eaten, clothes were made from fish skin. On the wooded slopes of the Urals lived the Voguls, who were mainly engaged in hunting. The Ostyaks and Voguls had principalities headed by tribal nobility. The princes owned fishing grounds, hunting grounds, and besides that, their fellow tribesmen also brought them “gifts”. Wars often broke out between the principalities. Captured prisoners were turned into slaves. In the northern tundra lived the Nenets, who were engaged in reindeer herding. With herds of deer, they constantly moved from pasture to pasture. The reindeer provided the Nenets with food, clothing, and shelter, which was made from reindeer skins. Fishing and hunting foxes and wild deer were common occupations. The Nenets lived in clans headed by princes. Further, to the east of the Yenisei, the Evenki (Tungus) lived. Their main occupation was fur hunting and fishing. In search of prey, the Evenks moved from place to place. They also dominated the tribal system. In the south of Siberia, in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, lived Khakass cattle breeders. Buryats lived in Uangara and Baikal. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. The Buryats were already on the way to becoming a class society. In the Amur region lived the tribes of Daurs and Duchers, more economically developed.
The Yakuts occupied the territory formed by Lena, Aldan and Amgoyu. Separate groups were placed on the river. Yana, the mouth of Vilyui and the Zhigansk region. In total, according to Russian documents, the Yakuts at that time numbered about 25 - 26 thousand people. By the time the Russians appeared, the Yakuts were a single people with a single language, a common territory and a common culture. The Yakuts were at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system. The main large social groups were tribes and clans. In the economy of the Yakuts, the processing of iron was widely developed, from which weapons, blacksmith accessories and other tools were made. The blacksmith enjoyed great honor among the Yakuts (more than a shaman). The main wealth of the Yakuts was cattle. The Yakuts led a semi-sedentary life. In the summer they went to winter roads, they also had summer, spring and autumn pastures. In the economy of the Yakuts, much attention was paid to hunting and fishing. The Yakuts lived in yurts-balagans, insulated with turf and earth in winter, and in summer - in birch bark dwellings (ursa) and in light huts. Great power belonged to the ancestor-toyon. He had from 300 to 900 heads of cattle. The Toyons were surrounded by servants - chakhardars - from slaves and domestic servants. But the Yakuts had few slaves, and they did not determine the mode of production. The poor rodovici were not yet the object of the birth of feudal exploitation. There was also no private ownership of fishing and hunting lands, but hay lands were distributed among individual families.
Siberian Khanate
At the beginning of the XV century. in the process of the disintegration of the Golden Horde, the Siberian Khanate was formed, the center of which was originally Chimga-Tura (Tyumen). The Khanate united many Turkic-speaking peoples, who rallied within its framework into the people of the Siberian Tatars. At the end of the XV century. after lengthy civil strife, power was seized by Mamed, who united the Tatar uluses along the Tobol and the middle Irtysh and placed his headquarters in an ancient fortification on the banks of the Irtysh - "Siberia", or "Kashlyk".
The Siberian Khanate consisted of small uluses, headed by beks and murzas, who constituted the ruling class. They distributed pastures and fishing grounds and turned the best pastures and water sources into private property. Islam spread among the nobility and became the official religion of the Siberian Khanate. The main working population consisted of "black" ulus people. They paid the murza, or bek, annual "gifts" from the products of their household and tribute-yasak to the khan, carried military service in the detachments of the ulus bek. The khanate exploited the labor of slaves - "yasyrs" and poor, dependent community members. The Siberian khanate was ruled by the khan with the help of advisers and karachi (vizier), as well as yasauls sent by the khan to the uluses. Ulus beks and murzas were vassals of the khan, who did not interfere in the internal routine of the life of the ulus. The political history of the Siberian Khanate was full of internal strife. The Siberian khans, pursuing an aggressive policy, seized the lands of part of the Bashkir tribes and the possessions of the Ugrians and Turkic-speaking inhabitants of the Irtysh region and the basin of the river. Omi.
Siberian Khanate by the middle of the 16th century. located on a vast expanse of the forest-steppe of Western Siberia from the basin of the river. Tours in the west and to Baraba in the east. In 1503, Ibak's grandson Kuchum seized power in the Siberian Khanate with the help of Uzbek and Nogai feudal lords. The Siberian Khanate under Kuchum, which consisted of separate, economically almost unrelated uluses, was politically very fragile, and with any military defeat inflicted on Kuchum, this state of Siberian Tatars was condemned to cease to exist.
Accession of Siberia to Russia
The natural wealth of Siberia - furs - has long attracted attention. Already at the end of the XV century. enterprising people penetrated the "stone belt" (Urals). With the formation of the Russian state, its rulers and merchants saw in Siberia an opportunity for great enrichment, especially since those undertaken since the end of the 15th century. prospecting for ores precious metals so far have not been successful.
To a certain extent, the penetration of Russia into Siberia can be put on a par with the penetration of certain European powers into overseas countries at that time in order to pump out jewels from them. However, there were also significant differences.
The initiative in developing relations came not only from the Russian state, but also from the Siberian Khanate, which in 1555, after the liquidation of the Kazan Khanate, became a neighbor of the Russian state and asked for patronage in the fight against the Central Asian rulers. Siberia entered into vassal dependence on Moscow and paid tribute to it in furs. But in the 70s, due to the weakening of the Russian state, the Siberian khans began attacks on Russian possessions. The fortifications of the merchants Stroganovs stood in their way, who were already beginning to send their expeditions to Western Siberia to buy furs, and in 1574. received a royal charter with the right to build fortresses on the Irtysh and own lands along the Tobol to ensure the trade route to Bukhara. Although this plan was not carried out, the Stroganovs managed to organize a campaign of the Cossack squad of Ermak Timofeevich, who went to the Irtysh and by the end of 1582, after a fierce battle, took the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk, and expelled Khan Kuchum. Many vassals of Kuchum from among the Siberian peoples subject to the khan went over to the side of Yermak. After several years of struggle, which continued with varying success (Yermak died in 1584), the Siberian Khanate was finally destroyed.
In 1586, the Tyumen fortress was established, and in 1587, Tobolsk, which became the Russian center of Siberia.
A stream of trade and service people. But besides them, peasants, Cossacks, townspeople, who fled from feudal oppression, moved there.
Conquest of the Siberian Khanate
The Siberian Khanate was part of Tatar-Mongol Horde. By the middle of the 16th century, that is, by the time the Siberian Khanate entered into direct relations with Russia, which had already freed itself from the Horde yoke (1480) and was expanding to the east, the territory of the Khanate extended over the entire Western Siberia from the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains in the west to the Nadyma and Pima rivers in the east. This vast state bordered in the northwestern Urals on the Perm lands, inhabited by Komi, Perm and Voguls (Mansi), who already at the end of the 14th century. brought the light of Russian Orthodoxy to St. Stefan, Apostle of the Zyrians. In the western Urals, it was the border with the Kazan Khanate, which occupied the Kama basin (subdued by Russia in 1552). In the southwestern Urals, the Siberian Khanate bordered on the Nogai Horde, which was part of the Khanate in the 15th-16th centuries. included the lands of the Bashkirs living on the eastern slopes of the Urals. In the south, the border of the khanate ran along the upper reaches of the Irtysh and along the river. Om, and in the southeast included the entire Baraba steppe.
The entire Siberian Khanate, despite its huge size, was sparsely populated. It was believed that in the middle of the XVI century. there were 30.5 thousand inhabitants: they were mainly Tatars (especially in the western and southern lands), as well as Mansi, Permians - in the west, Khanty (Ostyaks) - in the central and eastern regions. Many tribes led a nomadic lifestyle. There were no cities in the Siberian Khanate. In the regions of the Upper Ob, along the tributaries of the Ob - Sosva and Pelym - in places inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes, small fortified settlements (towns) were created along the rivers. Later, Tatar towns along the banks of the river were created according to the same type. Tours. These are Kyzyl-Tura (Ust-Ishim), Kasim-Tura, Yavlu-Tura, Ton-Tur. On the Tura, at the confluence of the Tyumen River, the capital of the Siberian Khanate was created under the Taibugid dynasty - Chimga-Tura (XIII century), now Tyumen. Another capital on the river. The Irtysh, on its right steep bank, 16 kilometers from the current Tobolsk, was founded in the 13th century. city of Isker. Later he was Siber, Sibir, Siberia, after which the whole Khanate was named. This capital at the beginning of the XV century. also called Qashlyk. In the XV century. Siberia (Isker-Kashlyk) became the main capital of the Siberian Khanate, although in 1420 the residence was again transferred to Chimgu-Tura and Tobolsk.
The Moscow conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates was not perceived in Siberia as a general war of Russians against all Tatar fragments of the Horde. It was believed that Moscow simply had old scores with the Kazan Tatars because of their raids on Rus', and that this only concerned them.
This is confirmed by the fact that in 1555 the ambassadors of the Siberian Khan Ediger came to Moscow to congratulate Tsar John IV on the acquisition of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and to ask him to take the entire Siberian land under his hand. Ivan the Terrible agreed and established a tribute: to give one sable and one squirrel from each person. “And we have people,” said the Siberian ambassadors, “30,700 people.”
But the tribute collectors in 1556 brought only 700 sables, after which the tsar sent the Moscow Tatars to Siberia with a letter - to collect all the tribute by all means. In September 1557, the messengers returned, bringing 1000 sables and 104 sables instead of 1000 squirrels, as well as a written obligation of Khan Yediger to pay tribute annually with the explanation that, due to his continuous wars with the Uzbeks and Kazakhs, it was impossible to collect the entire tribute.
In 1563 Yediger was killed by a new khan - Kuchum. He decided that, due to the distance from Moscow and the impossibility of control, he could afford to stop collecting tribute, and even killed the Moscow ambassador who had come for tribute. Moreover, Kuchum began to persecute the Mansi and Khanty (Voguls and Ostyaks), who paid tribute to Moscow in Perm region. And after the raid on Moscow, the Crimean khan Devlet-Girey in 1571-1572. emboldened Kuchum finally broke off relations of vassalage with Moscow.
In 1573, the khan began to disturb the possessions of the Stroganov industrialists in Perm. The Stroganovs began to hire Cossacks for protection. In July 1579, 540 Volga Cossacks came to them, led by ataman Ermak Timofeevich and his associates - Ivan Koltso, Yakov Mikhailov, Nikita Pan, Matvey Meshcheryak. They served two years with the Stroganovs. In July 1581, the Kuchumovsky detachment of 700 people raided the Stroganov towns. The attackers were defeated by Yermak's Cossacks. In this regard, it became necessary to discourage the impudent Tatars from hunting for new raids, to pursue them beyond the Urals, to send a detachment there "to fight the Siberian Saltan."
September 1, 1581 Yermak and his comrades, having 840 people (300 of their warriors were given by the Stroganovs), armed with squeakers and cannons, with the necessary supplies winter shoes, clothing, food, supplied by local guides along the rivers of Siberia and translators from local languages (Tatar, Mansi, Khanty, Perm), went to conquer the Siberian Khanate.
The campaign of the detachment of Ermak Timofeevich to the Siberian Khanate lasted from September 1, 1581 to August 15, 1584.
After the first easy successes, which provided the advantage of firearms, on October 26, 1582, Yermak's detachments entered the deserted capital of the Khanate Isker (Siberia), where they wintered. In 1583, Yermak conquered the Tatar settlements along the Irtysh and the Ob. He also took the capital of the Khanty Nazym. Returning to Isker, Yermak let the Stroganovs and Moscow know about his successes, sending the Ring with gifts (furs) to the king of ataman Ivan. In his message, Yermak reported that he defeated Khan Kuchum, captured his son and commander-in-chief, Prince Mametkul, captured the capital of the Khanate, the city of Siberia, subdued all its inhabitants in settlements along the main rivers.
However, Yermak's small forces, forced to fight continuously for two years, were depleted. Bearing the inevitable losses of people, experiencing a shortage of ammunition, shoes and clothing, Yermak's units began to lose their combat effectiveness over time. Kuchum, who migrated to the upper reaches of the rivers - the Irtysh, Tobol and Ishim, inaccessible to Yermak's plows, all the time followed all his actions and tried to inflict damage on small Russian detachments with unexpected attacks. On the night of August 5-6, 1584, Yermak himself died, who went out with a small detachment of 50 people along the Irtysh and fell into a Tatar ambush. All his people were killed. There were so few Cossacks left that the governor Glukhov and the only surviving atamans Matvey Meshcheryak fled to Russia. Thus, two years after the "victorious conquest" Siberia was lost. The Khanate of Kuchum was restored there. By this time, Ivan the Terrible had died, and the new Tsar Theodore Ioannovich did not yet know about the death of Yermak and the flight of his governors from Siberia. Not receiving any news from Siberia, Boris Godunov, who managed state affairs under Theodore Ioannovich, decided to send a new governor, Ivan Mansurov, and a new military detachment to Siberia. Thus began the second conquest of the Siberian Khanate (1585–1598).
Mansurov went to Siberia in the summer of 1585 with a detachment of archers and Cossacks. He founded on the right bank of the Ob the Big Ob town (until the 18th century it was called in Khanty Rush-Vash - the Russian city). Following Mansurov, archery heads were sent from Moscow to Siberia - Vasily Sukin, Ivan Myasnoy, Daniil Chulkov - with three hundred warriors and a supply of firearms and artillery. These detachments did not go to the capital of Kuchum on the Irtysh, but went up the Tura to the former Tatar capital of Chimgi-Tura and at the mouth of the river. Tyumenka founded the Tyumen fortress (1586), and at the mouth of the river. Tobol - fortress Tobolsk (1587). These fortresses became strongholds for all further advancement of the Russians in Siberia. Occupying strategically dominant heights and key points on the rivers, they became a solid military-defense basis for the further development of the region and for control over the local population.
Thus, the Cossack tactics of hasty military campaigns was changed to a strategy of successive consolidation on the rivers by building fortresses on them and leaving permanent garrisons in these fortresses - first of all, along the rivers Tura, Pyshma, Tobol, Tavda, and then Lozva, Pelym, Sosva , Tara, Keti and, of course, Ob. In the 1590s the following network of Russian fortresses is being created: Lozvinsky town on the river. Lozva (1590); Pelym on the river. Tavda (1592–1593); Surgut on the river. Ob (1593); Berezov on the river. Sosva (1593); Tara on the river. Tara (1594); Obdorsk on the Lower Ob (1594); Ket town on the river. Ob (1596); Narym town on the river. Ket (1596–1597); Verkhoturye (1598).
This method of conquering Siberia practically excluded bloody battles and Russian losses, forcing the enemy to take up passive defensive positions. All this forced Kuchum to migrate to the south and reduce his raids on the lands developed by the Russians. Kuchum's attempts to take a large Russian fortress invariably ended in defeat. In 1591, Kuchum was defeated by the governor Vladimir Masalsky-Koltsov. In 1595, Kuchum's troops were put to flight by the governor Domozhirov. In 1597, Kuchum's detachments unsuccessfully tried to capture the Tara fortress, and, finally, in August 1598, at the mouth of the river. Irmen Kuchum's army was utterly defeated by the troops of the governor Andrei Matveyevich Voeikov, part of the khan's family was captured. The khan himself fled with his three sons and was later killed in the Nogai steppes.
This last fight Russian troops with detachments of Khan Kuchum, which ended the conquest of the Siberian Khanate, which had been going on for two decades, later colorfully painted in various fiction novels, historical works, reflected in folk songs and even in the paintings of V. I. Surikov, in reality, was not of a grandiose nature. If the Russian army of 150 thousand people took part in the conquest of Kazan, then only 404 people participated from the Russian side in the last decisive battle with Kuchum for the Siberian Khanate. From the side of Kuchum, the army was also no more than 500 people who did not have firearms. Thus, in the decisive battle for the conquest of the vast lands of Siberia, less than one thousand people participated on both sides!
Kuchum as the Khan of Siberia was nominally succeeded by his son Ali (1598-1604), who was forced to roam the uninhabited, desert territories of Western Siberia, having no shelter. With his death, the history of the Siberian Tatar state, the largest fragment of the former powerful Horde, which not so long ago defeated Rus', both formally and actually ceased.
(Pokhlebkin V.V. Tatars and Rus. 360 years of relations in 1238–1598. M., 2000)
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TOPIC 1. SIBERIA ON THE EVE OF RUSSIAN COLONIZATION.
JOINING SIBERIA TO RUSSIA
SIBERIAN KHANATE
At the end of the XVI - XVII centuries. throughout Siberia, but according to historians, only a thousand people lived. A denser population in the south and a very rare one in the north differed in language and economic development. In the north of Western Siberia, in the tundra from the Urals to the Khatanga River, there are Nenets, Enets, who received the name "Samoyeds" from the Russians (about 8 thousand people). To the south of them in the taiga zone - the Khanty and Mansi thousand), the Russians called them Ostyaks. On the middle Ob and the middle Yenisei - Selkups (about 3 thousand people) and other tribes, also called Ostyaks.
In the south of Western Siberia, Turkic tribes roamed: on the middle Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol - Siberian Tatars thousand people), on the upper Yenisei - the Yenisei Kirghiz and other tribes (8-9 thousand people), in Altai, the upper reaches of the Ob - Tomsk, Chulym and Kuznetsk Tatars (5-6 thousand people) - the ancestors of modern Shors, Altaians, Khakasses. The Russians also called Tatars the tribes on the upper Yenisei and the Sayan Highlands.
In Eastern Siberia, from the Yenisei to the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and from the tundra to Mongolia and the Amur, the Tungus lived, the ancestors of modern Evenks (about 30 thousand people). They were divided into 3 groups: reindeer Tungus (in the taiga), foot (on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk) and horse (in the steppes of Transbaikalia). In Transbaikalia and the Baikal region, along the Selenga and Angara rivers, nomadic Mongol-speaking tribes lived, which formed the ethnic basis of the Buryats (about 30 thousand people). Along the Lena, Vilyui and in Primorye - the ancestors of the Nanai, Udege, Turkic-speaking Yakuts, thousand people). Yukaghirs lived in the north-east of Siberia from the lower reaches of the Lena to Anadyr, in the north of Kamchatka, the coast of the Bering and Okhotsk seas - the Koryaks (9-10 thousand people), on the Chukchi Peninsula and the lower reaches of the Kolyma - the Chukchi (2-3 thousand people). ). Eskimos (about 4 thousand people) lived on the coast of Chukotka, and Itelmens lived in Kamchatka. The Eskimos and Itelmens are considered the most ancient inhabitants of North Asia, driven "to the ends of the world" by newcomers from the south - the Turks, Mongols and other tribes.
The tribes along the sea coast were engaged in hunting seals and walruses, the population of the tundra and taiga - hunting, fishing, reindeer herding, in the forest-steppe and steppe breeding horses, sheep, large cattle. Agriculture existed in the south of Western Siberia, in the foothills of the Altai, the Minusinsk basin, the Baikal region, and the Amur region. It was primitive and played a secondary role. Agriculture was the basis of the economy only on the Amur among the Daurs. Tatars, Buryats, Yakuts, Altai Shors, Tungus were known for the extraction and processing of metal. Among the tribes of the North-Eastern extremity of Siberia: the Yukaghirs, Koryaks, Chukchis, Eskimos, Itelmens - the Russians found the Stone Age, with stone and bone tools.
The authorities sought to streamline and subjugate the settlement of Siberia by taxing the settlers with a tax - a set of taxes and duties in favor of the state, which was clearly recorded first in order and warrant records, and later in census and sentinel books.
In the 17th century the main social strata of the Siberian population have developed:
Service people who early XVIII V. there were about 10 thousand. They were divided into several categories: Cossacks (foot and horseback), archers, as well as serving nobility - children of boyars and Siberian nobles;
Industrial people (until the middle of the 17th century they were the predominant part of the Russian population);
Posad people, who were officially considered the trade and craft part of the townspeople, but were mainly engaged in agriculture and gardening and lived not only in the city, but also in the surrounding villages; this part of the population, like the peasantry, belonged to the draft population and carried the difficult township tax, which consisted of various payments, ordinary and extraordinary taxes, and natural duties;
The peasantry (in terms of numbers prevailed by the beginning of the 18th century and numbered 160-190 thousand people). There were also several categories in this social group: black-mowed (arable and quitrent), personally free, bearing tax in favor of the state; monastic peasants, personally and economically dependent on the monasteries;
- "walking people" were a motley social group of people who considered themselves free and unencumbered by the economy, while the state sought to enroll them either in the draft population or in the service.
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF SIBERIA IN THE XVII - XVIII CENTURIES.
Siberia was administered from Moscow (until early XVII V. through the Posolsky order, then the order of the Kazan Palace). With the development of Siberia, the system of managing new lands became more complicated. In 1637, the Siberian order was created (it existed until the 60s of the XVIII century), which had broader powers than other regional orders, up to customs and diplomatic ones. Siberia was administratively divided into counties and volosts, later the counties were combined into several categories (for example, Tobolsk and Tomsk, then Lensky, Yenisei were added). At the head of the ranks and districts were governors (often from Moscow).
A feature of Siberia was the omnipotence of county and discharge governors, and especially the governor of the then capital of Siberia - Tobolsk (from 1621 Tobolsk became the church center of Siberia). This entailed terrible lawlessness and abuse of power, which brought the Russian and indigenous population to various forms of discontent and indignation, up to armed uprisings.
But at the same time, the Siberian authorities skillfully used secular (communal and township) self-government in their own and state interests, realizing that their main task was the development and management of Siberia. Through the elders, sotskys, tenants and others, a system of their own economy was established, the performance of state duties was organized, etc. The authorities built relations with indigenous peoples, not only based on pressure and violence, but also attracted tribal nobility to the service of the state, preserving the tribal structure and religious identity, protecting the interests of the owners.
During the reforms of Peter I, the system of state administration underwent significant changes, including in Siberia. As part of the 1st provincial reform, the Siberian province was created (1708) with the center in Tobolsk, and the main management functions were concentrated in the hands of the Siberian governor (the 1st governor of Siberia was a prince executed in 1721 for abuse of power). The district division is preserved, and the governors become commandants and are appointed by the governor.
In the course of the II provincial reform, the Siberian province was divided into Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Yenisei provinces headed by vice-governors.
Peter's reforms led to a significant centralization of power, strengthening the influence and role of governors, vice-governors, governors, and local self-government was increasingly subordinate to administrative power.
At the same time, a feature of the management of Siberia in the 1st half of the 18th century. was the preservation of the election of lower officials and the small size of the Siberian administration.
In the second half of the XVIII century. during the reform of the administration of Russia under Catherine II, the structure of power is radically changing towards the center. Since 1763, the Siberian province has been governed on a common basis with other provinces, and the functions of the Siberian governor are distributed among central institutions - colleges (but the Siberian governor was subordinate only to the Senate and the monarch).
According to the “Provincial Institution” of Catherine II, in Siberia, as in Russia as a whole, the principle of “separation of powers” (executive, financial, judicial) was introduced, this was largely formal in nature, but nevertheless, for the first time, bodies appeared in Siberia that dealt with the decision social problems, improved judicial system, executive power.
The "Letter of Letters to the Cities" of 1785 significantly changed the city self-government, and although it was controlled by the administration, its rights were expanded and its authority grew.
TOPIC 3. SIBERIA ON THE EVE OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC TURN (XVIII - THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURIES). DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM IN POST-REFORM SIBERIA
GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES OF SIBERIA
By the beginning of the XVIII century. most of Siberia became integral part Russian state. There was an intensive economic development of this territory, and it was necessary to continue its study in order to supplement the information about Siberia and get a more reliable idea about it. The decisive turning point in the exploration of Siberia occurred in the 18th century, when expeditions of grandiose scope and results were undertaken. The work done on the collection of geographical, ethnographic and historical information gives grounds to rightfully call these expeditions "the second discovery of Siberia". As a result of all research work by the end of the century, there was already a fairly complete picture of Siberia. Its result was published in 1785 and 1786. General maps of the Russian Empire and compiled in the late 1780s - early 1790s. "topographical descriptions" of the Tobolsk and Irkutsk governorships, which gave a comprehensive description of Western and Eastern Siberia: nature, landscape, climate, number and composition of the population.
The study of Siberia was carried out in the next century. The northern part of the Pacific Ocean, in particular, the coasts of Kamchatka and Sakhalin, were examined and, having completed in 1999. circumnavigation. In 1y. led by an expedition that went from Krasnoyarsk to the Amur.
An important point in the study of Siberia in the XIX century. were geological surveys that led to the discovery in Siberia of gold, graphite, hard coal etc. In 1828, the Verkhoturye merchant Andrei Popov, having heard about the discovery of gold by the peasant Yegor Lesnoy in the Mariinsky taiga, set up a gold mine there. Soon gold was found in Altai, in the Yenisei province, Transbaikalia.
SIBERIAN CITIES: THEIR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMAGE
In Siberia in the 18th century, the appearance of cities began to change significantly. wooden construction gradually replaced, albeit extremely slowly, stone. The urban population is growing. Cities are becoming major centers of trade and industry. Siberian townspeople, with all their burdensome duties in favor of the state, had rights strictly assigned to them, being both legally and actually free people. “Charter to the cities” of Catherine II protected the life of citizens, dignity, property and gave them the opportunity to freely carry out any type of professional and economic activity. Posad people and philistines, paying large taxes in favor of the state, nonetheless, as they say, were knocked out into people, becoming successful artisans, clerks, merchants, breeders, manufacturers, etc. According to the mid-60s. 18th century in Siberia, there were about 14 assigned to the merchant class.
Cities developed intensively in economic terms, not only due to the fact that it was in them that numerous technical innovations were actively introduced. Since it was the urban population that had strictly fixed and clearly assigned rights, had the opportunity to engage in a wide variety of activities, it is the cities that become the leading centers of industry and trade.
The improvement of the city, its familiarization with culture were the result of successful economic development.
PEASANTRY OF SIBERIA: SOCIAL AND LEGAL STATUS
Siberia, unlike the European part of Russia, did not know serfdom. Many runaway serfs who fled from the landlords settled on its territory. significant number the so-called state peasants, who were not serfs, but simply arrived in Siberia in search of a better life. Therefore, not only the fairly old local population devoted their lives to agriculture, but also the people who arrived here quickly became peasants.
The number of peasants living in Siberia during the XVIII century. increased more than 3 times (from 100 thousand people at the beginning of the century to 330 thousand people at the end). In the middle of the XIX century. the number of peasants has already exceeded 1 million people. IN legal relation the state peasant was regarded as personally free, but at the same time his rights to move were severely curtailed. In addition, the government tried to limit the possibility of the movement of peasants on the territory of Siberia by the old forms of social existence of the peasants. It is known that the peasants of Rus', and then Russia, lived in "peace", or in a community. The community strictly controlled the activities of each of its members. She made sure that he paid his share in the payment of taxes on time, did not leave the territory of his residence without the permission of the community, and regularly participated in public works. In this regard, it was easier to mobilize the peasants for various state duties, which consisted in the construction and repair of roads, the transportation of mail, the collection of bread in "reserve stores", etc.
However, it should be noted that, in general, the duties and payments of the Siberian peasants were significantly less than in European Russia. After paying taxes and fulfilling duties, half of the income remained with the peasant.
At the same time, property differentiation was observed among the Siberian peasantry already in the 18th century. However, it differed from that which was in the European part of Russia. The layer of rich peasants was small. Wealthy peasants often preferred to move into the bourgeoisie, merchants, investing their capital in various crafts, trade and usury. The stratum of the poor was small, amounting to only % of the entire peasantry of Siberia. In all peasant volosts there were annual elections of members of the volost board. Elections of volost and village chiefs were held at the gathering, which was the main governing body of the community. All villagers, including women, were invited to the village gathering (local names: “gathering”, “council”, “consent”). Anyone could participate in its work.
If a peasant tried to move to those territories that were not developed, but required development, the administration did not interfere with this. At the same time, it was important that the settlers did not “fall out” of the tax, continuing to perform all state duties in the new place.
In the first half of the XIX century. in order to provide workers for industry and gold mines, the authorities go to a significant expansion of the possibilities of official displacement of the population.
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
The spread of large-scale industry in Siberia dates back to the 18th century, which was associated with the discovery of deposits of iron, copper and silver ore. In 1704, a state-owned silver-smelting plant was built in Transbaikalia. In 1729, Akinfiy Demidov built the Kolyvansky smelter in Altai, and in 1744, the Barnaul copper smelter. Since 1766, the Suzun Mint began to operate. The issued Siberian coin differed in its appearance from the national one. It depicted the coat of arms of Siberia. After 1781, a copper coin of a national standard began to be minted at the Suzun Mint.
Some of the factory artisans stayed in their native villages and continued to engage in agriculture, because they worked at the factories for several months a year (as much time as it took to complete the “lesson” given to them). For example, a coal miner, who was on a separate payment, had to burn out three twenty-sat heaps of charcoal a year. Severe debilitating manual labor, high production rates made it very difficult, physically exhausting the life of artisans. They often left the enterprises. That is why in a number of regions of Siberia, forced assignment of artisans to enterprises was gradually introduced.
In Siberia during the XVIII - first half of XIX centuries gold mining grew rapidly (from 45 poods in 1831 to 1296 poods in 1850). Thanks to Siberian gold, Russia has become a leader in the global economy.
Siberia was not inferior to the European part of Russia in terms of the degree of liveliness of trade. In the first half of the XIX century. here the number of merchants began to grow rapidly. The reasons for this were an increase in the marketability of the peasant economy, as well as an increase in the number of consumer strata of the urban population. Annual fairs functioned in the cities, traditional bazaars were organized. In the middle of the 19th century, Western Siberia was still ahead of the east of Siberia in terms of the number of merchants. Most of the Siberian merchants belonged at that time to the 3rd guild (small merchants). Wealthy merchants (1st and 2nd guilds) concentrated in major cities(Tobolsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, etc.).
THE GENESIS OF CAPITALISM IN SIBERIA.
By the beginning of the bourgeois reforms, the main mass of land in Siberia was state and cabinet. At that time there were 145,000 state peasants and over 20,000 state artisans. Feudalism prevailing in Russian Empire, seriously hampered the genesis and development of capitalist relations in the region. The development of the Siberian economy was closely connected with the all-Russian and world. In the 70s. 19th century in Siberia, mass gold mining began, and the gold industry became the most influential among other industries. The big bourgeoisie in Siberia included 1200 families. Sources of formation initial capital here they differed in that they were created, as most modern historians of Siberia note, mainly in an honest way - wholesale and retail. International trade in Siberia brought huge profits and in the period under review was monopolized
Siberian Khanate - a bit of history
Along with the history of Yermak's campaign, the history of the Siberian Khanate was also subjected to strong mythologization. In practice, we can say that we do not know anything about the history of this khanate, and we do not want to know. It is characterized in the famous work "History of Siberia from ancient times to the present day" as "primitive statehood." Once it was primitive, then there is nothing to study. V.N. Shunkov, editor-in-chief of the second volume of The History of Siberia from Ancient Times, defended with all his might the thesis: "it is hardly doubtful that until the end of the 16th century, the primitive communal system was still dominant among the majority of the peoples of Siberia."
But, as we see, this is not so. A state that managed to exist for 371 years cannot be called primitive. He had such a device that provided him with stability and stability, despite turbulent events. It was a fairly well developed state. L.R. Kyzlasov wrote: “The discoveries of recent years have shown that almost everywhere in Siberia, with the possible exception of a narrow strip of the tundra zone, in antiquity or from the early Middle Ages there were independent urban centers.” These discoveries, I will add to the statement of Leonid Romanovich, also require a deep study of the history of the Siberian Khanate before the arrival of the Russians.
However, it is very difficult to do work on the study of the history of the Siberian Khanate now, because information about it is scattered in hard-to-reach literature, according to numerous, rare and often untranslated sources into Russian. Archaeologists did practically nothing to study the cities of this khanate, despite the fact that their location is well known, and some cities have remained on the map to this day. For example, 35 kilometers southeast of Tobolsk and now on the banks of the Irtysh is the village of Abalak, known since the time of the Siberian Khanate.
The complexity and inaccessibility of sources greatly complicates the work. G.F. has already encountered this state of affairs. Miller. He did a lot of work, copying documents in government huts of Siberian cities, interviewing the local population, visiting places historical events and looking at ancient finds. He managed to bring the history of the Siberian Khanate only to the time of Genghis Khan. He managed to make a rough sketch of its ancient history, and he relied on extremely contradictory and unreliable information that required additions and clarifications.
But compared to the truly legendary Soviet version of the pre-Russian history of the Siberian Khanate, Miller's work looks like an outstanding achievement of historical thought.
Here is the version presented in the book of the Irkutsk local historian Dmitry Kopylov "Ermak". Pointing out that Siberia was a sparsely populated and undeveloped territory, he reports that at the end of the 15th century there were two principalities on the site of the Siberian Khanate: Ishim, located in the lower reaches of the Ishim with its capital in Kyzyl-Tura, and Tyumen, in the interfluve of the Tura and Tavda, with capital in Chimgi-Tur. Tura is a city. This means that both capitals of the principalities were cities. Kopylov does not indicate the location of these cities. "Kyzyl" is the adjective red. So, the capital of the Ishim principality was the "Red City". And what is “Chim-gi” is not clear, and is not explained in the book of the Irkutsk local historian.
The Ishim principality was ruled by Sargachik. If the state is called a principality, then Sargachik was a prince. The Tyumen principality was ruled by Ibak Khan. If so, then his state should be called a khanate. But in Kopylov's book, Ibak Khan rules the principality. Okay, let's go.
About Ibak Khan it is reported that he annexed the lands along the Tura, Tavda, Tobol, Irtysh and Ishim. This is a huge territory, the conquest of which requires a lot of strength. It must be assumed that he conquered the Ishim principality, located in the lower reaches of the Ishim. Ibak Khan ended his life badly. In 1493 he was killed by a certain Mahmet. Who this Mahmet is remains not entirely clear. Judging by the presentation of Kopylov, this is the son of Sargachik. Judging by his name, he may have been a Muslim. Mahmet killed Ibak Khan and founded a new state - the Siberian Khanate. He made the town of Kashlyk, or Isker, the capital.
In 1558, Kuchum, the middle son of Murtaza and a direct descendant of Ibak, elevated his father to the throne of the Siberian Khanate. What he did with Mahmet, history is silent. Maybe he killed him, or maybe he died himself. I like the second version more. Died old-old Makhmet, Khan of the Siberian Khanate. Kuchum found out that the throne of the khanate was empty, and, like an exemplary son, he suggested to his father - dad, go sit on it for a while.
And in 1564, Kuchum himself became the Khan of the Siberian Khanate. Apparently, Murtazy was old, he did not sit on the throne of the khanate for a long time, but he did not repeat the mistakes of Makhmet, he gave the khanate to his middle son.
From this moment begins the history of the Siberian Khanate, headed by Khan Kuchum on the throne.
And here is how the history of the Siberian Khanate is described by G.F. Miller.
The first ruler of this territory, whose name is preserved in history, was On-Son. His power extended to the Tatars who lived along the Irtysh and Ishim. The capital of that possession was in the city of Kizyl-Tura, which was inhabited in the days of Kuchum.
Judging by the context and further description of the history of this place, the reign of On-Som dates back to ancient times, around the second half of the 12th century. After him, his heir, most likely his son, Irtyshak, ruled. According to Miller, the name of the Irtysh River came from his name. Why he became so famous that a large river was named after him remains unknown.
Irtyshak ruled, apparently, at the beginning of the 13th century. Most likely, he was defeated and subjugated by the noyons of Genghis Khan. When Genghis Khan himself stormed Bukhara, the prince of the Kazakh Horde named Taybuga, the son of Khan Mamyk, appeared to him and asked the omnipotent Khan for possession of the Irtysh, Tobol, Ishim and Tura. Mercy was shown to the prince, and Taibuga became the ruler in these lands.
So he just became the founder of the Siberian Khanate. So, 1217 can be considered the year of foundation of the Siberian Khanate. Taibuga Khan built a city in the lands granted to him, which he named in honor of his benefactor - "Chingidin", that is, "the city of Chingiz." Subsequently, he became known under the Tatar name "Chimgi-Tura". After the conquest of the Siberian Khanate, the Russians built their city, Tyumen, on the site of Chingidin.
From Taibug came a whole family of rulers who ruled intermittently until 1588. Little is known about the events that took place in the Siberian Khanate during this dynasty. It is only known that at the end of the 15th century the power of this dynasty almost ended up in the wrong hands.
G.F. Miller talks about it this way. The great-grandson or great-great-grandson of Taibug, Mar-khan was married to the sister of the Kazan Khan Upak. Apparently, relations between relatives were far from cloudless, because Upak began a war against Mar and defeated his army. Mar Khan was killed, and his family: his wife, sons Obder and Ebalak, were taken prisoner, taken to Kazan and soon died in captivity. The Siberian Khanate for a time fell under the rule of the Kazan Khan.
The sons of Mar left sons, Mahmet, who was the son of Obder, and Angish, who was the son of Ebalak. When their father was defeated, the noble Tatars hid the Khan's grandchildren and then secretly raised them. The conqueror of the khanate did not know that the legitimate heirs to the throne were still alive. When Mahmet grew up, in 1493 he raised an uprising against the Kazan Khan. It was supported by the inhabitants of the former khanate. Khan Upak led an army to suppress the uprising. But near Chingidin, he was defeated by Mahmet's militia. Khan was captured and killed.
Mahmet, as the legitimate heir to the throne in the senior line, declared himself Khan and restored the Siberian Khanate. For himself, he built a new capital on the Irtysh, 16 versts from the place where Tobolsk would later be founded. It was the city of Isker, or Siberia.
In the Remezov chronicle, which Miller acquired in Tobolsk and later laid as the basis for his research, the capital built by Makhmet was called Kash-lyk. But Miller never heard such a name anywhere and therefore specifically interviewed the Tobolsk, Tyumen and Tara Tatars. They all said that the capital of the Siberian Khanate was called Isker, and most often Siberia: “In the Remezov Chronicle, this city is called Kashlyk, but this name, as I heard, is not used by any people,” he writes in “History of Siberia” .
In the future, when describing events, Miller uses only the name "Siberia". This circumstance, however, did not prevent our historians from taking the word of the Remezov Chronicle and naming the capital of the Siberian Khanate Kashlyk. Under this name, the city entered into all patriotic myths.
After the death of Mahmet, Angish ruled, who left the throne to Mahmet's son, Qasim. Qasim left the throne to his eldest son, Yediger. In addition to him, there were also the sons of Senbakht and Sauskani.
Yediger died unexpectedly in 1563. There was no one to transfer power to, since his brothers had also died by that time, leaving no heirs. No information has been preserved about their fate and the cause of such an early death. Ediger left behind a pregnant wife. In principle, the Siberian taishi could have waited until the khansha was relieved of her burden, and then finally decide the issue of succession to the throne. But, apparently, they feared a long anarchy in the khanate and immediately sent an embassy to Bukhara, to Murtaza, with a request to release one of their sons to the khan's throne.
Murtazy was not just a Bukhara khan. He was still a descendant of Genghis Khan, who once put the ancestor of the dynasty of Siberian khans on the throne. Apparently, the Siberian taishis reasoned that a new khan should also be given to them by a descendant of Genghis Khan. Murtazy Khan came from the clan of Sheibani Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and his son Jochi, who became the ruler of Bukhara. By the name of this ancestor, the whole family of Bukhara rulers was called Sheibanids.
By the way, Soviet historians sometimes spoke about the “struggle of the Taibugids and Sheibanids”, but did not explain what kind of clans they were and from whom they came. These are not at all the clans of the "rulers of the Ishim and Tyumen khanates." The Sheibanids are a genus of Genghisides who enjoyed great prestige throughout the East. The Taibugids family simply could not compete with him for anything, mainly because they were weak in front of the Sheibanids (although the Taibugids received power from the hands of Genghis Khan himself).
So, envoys from the Siberian Khanate came to Murtaza Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan in the twelfth generation, and asked him to give them a ruler from his own family. Murtaza sent his middle son Kuchum to rule in Isker. At this time, according to Abulgazi Khan, who wrote in Arabic, Kuchum was thirty years old. He was Khan until 1003 AH, that is, until 1595. This year he was 62 years old.
Here is such a version. Of course, it is difficult to vouch for her and say that she is absolutely reliable. But still, it inspires much more confidence than the legends of Soviet historians. It inspires confidence because it clearly names the participants in the events, clearly lists the sequence of events, and because it has a link to the history of neighboring peoples and states.
Verkhoturov Dmitry Nikolaevich
Source
Of course, the history of the Siberian Khanate is not limited to its collapse. The steppe spaces of Western Siberia were part of the nomadic states in the early Middle Ages. At the beginning of the II millennium AD. e. Kipchaks settled on these lands, against whom the troops of Khorezmshah Muhammad and the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi made long campaigns.
In the XIII century, the southern regions of Western Siberia became part of the Jochi ulus. The collapse of the Golden Horde led to the formation in Western Siberia in the 15th century of the Tyumen, and then the Siberian khanates. Important trade routes from the Volga region, Central Asia and East Turkestan passed through the territory of Western Siberia. In the Middle Ages, goods from Khazaria, Volga Bulgaria, Iran, China, France, Germany, Scandinavia got there.
On the territory of the Siberian yurt there were cities and settled settlements, one of the world religions - Islam and Arabic writing - became widespread. Under the rule of the Siberian khans were not only the Tatars, but also the Ugric and Samoyedic tribes. The Siberian Khanate maintained relations with the Kazan Khanate and the Sheibanid state in Central Asia.
Relations with the Muscovite kingdom were uneven: the Siberian khans either recognized their vassal dependence on the Muscovite tsar, or sent military detachments to collect tribute from the Ugric population and plunder Russian villages in the Kama region. Khan Tokhtamysh found his last refuge in Western Siberia, Edigei and Kuchum made campaigns here. All this does not allow us to agree with the dismissive assessments of the Siberian Khanate as an "ephemeral state".
The period spanning the 15th-16th centuries military history nomadic peoples of Eurasia remains poorly understood. This is partly due to the irreversible changes in the development of military affairs that occurred then. The development of firearms in European countries gave the regular armies a significant military-technical superiority over the nomadic cavalry. To some extent, this reduced interest in the history of the military art of nomads in the late Middle Ages. However, the study of the weapons of the Siberian Tatars can become a kind of standard for the analysis of other nomadic cultures of this period.
European science turned to the events of the military history of the Siberian Khanate in the 18th century, shortly after this state ceased to exist. The main written sources, primarily the Siberian chronicles, were collected in the 18th century by a German scholar in the Russian service, "the father Siberian history", G.F. Miller. At the same time, the study of archaeological sites of the Siberian Tatars began. The attention of scientists was focused on the examination of fortifications (Many famous scientists were engaged in the study of Tatar fortresses - D. G. Messerschmidt, G. F. Miller, I. G. Gmelin, I. E. Fisher, P. S. Pallas, I. P. Falk, etc. The most significant excavations of medieval monuments in the Baraba forest-steppe and the Irtysh region in the 19th - early 20th centuries were carried out by V. Radlov and V. N. Pignatti. recent decades V. I. Molodin, V. I. Sobolev, A. I. Solovyov, B. A. Konikov and other scientists were actively engaged in the study of archaeological sites of the Siberian Tatars).
Written historical sources contain separate information about weapons and fortifications, the tactics of combat by the Tatar troops, and the nature of military operations during the campaign of Yermak's detachment.
Among the archaeological finds and ethnographic materials of the culture of the Siberian Tatars there are details of bows and quivers, arrows, broadswords and sabers, daggers, spears and battle axes, fragments of chain mail and shells.
Judging by the available materials, bows and arrows were the main weapons of remote combat. Miller called bows and arrows, along with spears and sabers, "ordinary weapons of the Tatars." Having studied the bows of the medieval population of Western Siberia, AI Solovyov identified several types characteristic of the Siberian Tatars: bows with frontal middle and shoulder plates and made entirely of wood. It was enough effective weapon for shooting at short and medium distances, which was widely used throughout the nomadic world from the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e. Compared to bulky and labor-intensive squeakers, Tatar bows were simpler, more convenient and faster-firing weapons.
In addition to the Tatar military detachments, taiga Ugric tribes took part in the clashes, armed with bows and arrows, spears, swords, battle axes and protective shells.
The issues of the number and formation of troops in the Siberian Tatar Khanate have been little studied. Probably, the Siberian Tatars used the Asian decimal system for dividing troops and people. Individual murzas had various detachments at their disposal and could fight both independently and join the battle by joining their forces.
Kuchum Khan - Siberian Khan. Shibanid. His father was one of the last khans of the Golden Horde, Murtaza, the son of Ibak - Khan of Tyumen and the Great Horde. Kuchum was born presumably in 1510-1520 on the northern coast of the Aral Sea, in the ulus of Alty aul. In some legends, it is noted that Kuchum was a native of the Bukhara Khanate. However, Hadi Atlasi believes that Kuchum's homeland was the "Kyrgyz", i.e. Kazakh, steppes. Savva Esipov in the annals "On the capture of the Siberian land" also notes that Kuchum was from the Kazakh Khanate.
Relying on the support of his relative, the Bukhara Khan Abdullah Khan II, Kuchum waged a long (in 1555 the struggle was already underway) and stubborn struggle with the Siberian Khan Yediger using an army consisting of Uzbek, Nogai, Kazakh detachments. He won a decisive victory in 1563.
Kuchum achieved significant success in strengthening his state. In addition to the Tatars and Kipchaks, he subjugated the Khanto-Mansiysk tribes that lived on the Ob and the Urals, the Barabans and part of the Bashkir tribes that lived on the eastern slopes of the Urals. The borders of the Siberian Khanate in the north reached the Ob, in the west they crossed in some places to the European side of the Urals, in the south they passed along the Baraba steppe.
Having finally captured the Siberian Khanate, Kuchum at first continued to pay yasak and sent his ambassador to Moscow with 1000 sables (1571), but when his wars with the former Siberian rulers ended, he approached Perm. His appearance caused an attempt by the Nogai Tatars to secede from Moscow and the Cheremis revolt. Several further campaigns of his troops into the possessions of Ivan the Terrible and the Stroganovs, who sent armed detachments to pacify him, eventually led to his loss of power in the Siberian Khanate.
Having received news of the appearance of Yermak's detachments, Khan Kuchum "sent messengers to gather people," that is, he announced a general mobilization of his troops. He ordered "to gather the Tatars, Ostyaks and Voguls" and sent an army led by Tsarevich Makhmetkul to meet the enemy.
On October 1 (12), 1581, Kuchum withstood the onslaught of Yermak under the Chuvash mountain, but on October 23 (November 4) his camp was defeated by the Cossacks, the main troops consisting of local peoples fled, and three days later Yermak freely entered Isker, the capital of Siberia.
The relatively easy victory of a small (less than a thousand people) Cossack expedition led by Yermak over the whole khanate is explained by the fragility of the unification of various peoples, often professing different religion and lifestyle. In addition, many local princes believed that it was much more profitable for them to submit to the Cossacks, and then to the Moscow Tsar, than to serve the newcomer Khan, who also relied on the strength of Bukhara, Uzbek, Nogai, Kazakh detachments alien to them. And most importantly, Kuchum did not have a large experienced army, his guards and lancers, recruited in the southern steppes and reinforced by local Siberian Tatars, were relatively poorly armed, using outdated tactics and weapons. It was difficult for them to resist experienced Cossacks and foreign mercenaries, who mostly used firearms, high-quality protective armor and owned the most advanced combat techniques.
There is no doubt that in terms of the total number of troops of the Siberian Khanate and its vassals many times exceeded the detachment of Yermak. In addition, the Tatars fought at home and did not submit "voluntarily", but resisted for a long time and fiercely. Not possessing firearms, they were familiar with its action and did not at all scatter "like savages" from the sound of shots. The sources emphasize that in many battles the Tatar warriors fought bravely. For example, the battle at the mouth of the Tura River with the troops of six Tatar murzas "lasted several days with varying success," although the victory went to Yermak's detachment. The battle with the detachment of Makhmetkul at the Babasan yurts lasted five days.
As rightly noted by R.G. Skrynnikov, in addition to military-technical superiority, the soldiers of the Yermak detachment had extensive combat experience in battles with nomads, Tatars and Nogais. Yermak himself took part in the Livonian War. Atamans Ivan Koltso, Nikita Pan and others successfully fought against the nomads in the Volga region. According to some sources, the merchants Stroganovs, sending Yermak to Siberia, included in his detachment "three hundred Germans and Lithuanians" from among the prisoners of war from the Livonian War. European military specialists were highly valued in Russian state during this period and subsequent centuries and played a huge role in the development of Siberia.
Assessing the combat effectiveness of the troops of the Siberian Tatar Khanate, it should be noted that it fully corresponded to the level of development of military art in the nomadic world in the late Middle Ages. The military organization provided the Siberian Khanate with almost two hundred years of dominance over the Ugric and Samoyed tribes of Western Siberia, and allowed it to resist other nomadic associations. However, their combat strength and ability to fight was not enough to successfully fight armed firearms with great combat experience and determination in achieving the goal of the enemy.
The Tatars also had some experience of wars with the Russians. Military detachments of the Siberian Tatars and Voguls-Mansi repeatedly made trips through the Urals, to the lands of the Stroganov merchants. However, there were no major battles.
The Tatar commanders were unable to adapt to the military tactics of the Yermak detachment and were defeated in most battles.
Probably, the psychological factor also played a certain role in the military successes of the Yermak detachment. Ermak and his chieftains, in fact, could not return without a victory, since in their homeland they were faced with inevitable retribution for the previous robberies. Only having conquered the Siberian Khanate for the tsar, they could count on the tsar's "favors".
Therefore, Yermak continued to stubbornly move towards the goal, regardless of all the difficulties and human losses, overcoming not only the resistance of the Tatars, but also the disbelief of his subordinates in the success of the enterprise. At the same time, for Kuchum and other Tatar princes, the loss of one or another "town" did not mean a complete collapse. Behind them lay a saving steppe in which they could hide.
After a series of defeats, Kuchum surrendered the capital of the Khanate, Kashlyk, without a fight, which had fatal consequences. The Siberian Khanate collapsed not only under blows from outside, but also under the pressure of internal contradictions. For the Siberian Tatars and Ugrians, Kuchum and his entourage were aliens, conquerors. After the fall of Kashlyk, many subjects left Kuchum. Some Tatar murzas and Ugric princes went over to Yermak's side.
Seid Khan, a descendant of the ruling khan family of the Siberian Tatars Taibugids, and Murza Karacha rose against Kuchum. Even after the death of Yermak and the departure of the remnants of his detachment from Siberia beyond the Urals, Kuchuma and other contenders for the Khan's throne failed to restore the integrity of the Siberian Khanate.
After the destruction of Yermak’s detachment, Khan of the Siberian Khanate Kuchum again managed to largely restore his power and impose tribute on significant territories of Western Siberia. The Russian government switched to the tactics of consistently moving deep into Siberia with the consolidation occupied territories by building fortified fortresses and cities. For 15 years, Kuchum waged active hostilities with Russian detachments, he himself tried to capture Russian prisons, but to no avail.
Decisive blows to the statehood of the Siberian Tatars were inflicted at the end of the 1580-1590s.
In 1586, governors Vasily Sukin and Ivan Myasnoy were sent to Siberia. The following year, the head of Danila Chulkov arrived in Siberia with a detachment of archers. The forces of the khanate were undermined due to internecine struggle. Seidyak (Seid Khan), Kuchum's rival, expelled his sons from Isker, but in 1588 he himself was captured by Danila Chulkov.
In 1588, the clerk D. Chulkov lured Seid Khan and Murza Karacha to the Tobolsk prison for a feast and negotiations, during which their guards were treacherously killed, and the Tatar leaders themselves were taken prisoner and sent to Moscow.
In 1590, Khan Kuchum decided to visit his former possessions again. On June 23, he approached quite close to the city of Tobolsk, killed several Tatars in the villages and fled with the captured booty, before the Tobolsk governor could receive news of his approach. On another occasion, the khan raided the Kaurdak and Salym volosts, which were located at the top of the Irtysh and paid yasak to the Russians; he killed many people there and plundered a large amount of all kinds of goods. This was his revenge on those Tatars who did not recognize him as their sovereign and submitted to the Russians.
On July 8, 1591, the governor, Prince Vladimir Vasilievich Koltsov-Mosalsky, set out on a campaign, and on August 1 he attacked the khan on the Ishim River, near Lake Chilikula, that after a short battle, many who were with the khan were killed, and the survivors fled. Tsarevich Abdul-Khair and two wives of the khan with many other prisoners were supposed to follow the Russians, who returned with rich booty to Tobolsk, as a sign of complete victory.
In order to cover the city of Tobolsk from the south from the detachment of Khan Kuchum, who wandered in the steppes, to secure and organize the management of the Tatar volosts of the Middle Irtysh region that became part of Russia, a 1,500-strong detachment of Russian Cossacks and service Tatars was formed in Moscow and Tobolsk and sent in 1594 to build a new city on the Middle Irtysh - Tara.
The city of Tara was founded in 1594 by Prince Andrei Yeletsky and a detachment of serving Cossacks. From the tsar’s order to Andrey Yeletsky: “To move the city up the Irtysh to the Tara River, where it would be more profitable for the sovereign in the future, in order to start arable land and Kuchum to oust the king and get salt ...”. But the place at the mouth of the Tara River turned out to be unsuitable for building a fortress and establishing arable land, so a place was chosen for laying the city down the Irtysh, on the banks of the Arkarka River. However, the name of the city was given by the river Tara.
Tara became the first Russian settlement on the territory of the modern Omsk region. Since it was immediately determined that Tara should be the center of a new voivodeship, the settlement was given the status of a city by royal decree. The Assumption Church became the first urban building, and August 15 (according to the old style) (the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary) is considered the day of the foundation of Tara.
In 1594, Prince A. Yeletsky led a more than one and a half thousandth army along the Irtysh to the mouth of the Tara, wanting to lull Kuchum's vigilance with peaceful gestures, and then unexpectedly defeat his army and, if possible, capture it. Kuchum, learning about the intention of the Russians to build a city on the Tara River, sent Tsarevich Aley to the Ayalyn Tatars in order to take them to safer places along the upper Irtysh, where the Khan himself was at that time, in view of the Russian offensive. Aley gathered 150 Tatars and led them to an island called Cherny (40 versts below the Chernolutskaya settlement), where they set up a small town. Voivode Eletsky sent a detachment (276 people led by the written head Boris Domozhirov) who, at the first attack, took the Tatar Black Town, but he failed to prevent the flight of Khan Kuchum and most of the Tatars who were in the town. Both Ayalyn Yesauls Mamyk and Seytkul, Prince Ilguluy and Temsenek, son of Prince Kolkildey, as well as 60 ordinary Ayalyns with their wives and children were taken into captivity.
In 1596, the voivode F. Yeletsky defeated Kuchum's army in the town of Tunus. Khan managed to escape. The tsarist government tried to subdue Kuchum. Letters were sent to him on behalf of his nephew Makhmetkul and his son Abulkhair, who was in Russian captivity.
In 1597, Kuchum proposed to make peace, subject to the return of the lands along the Irtysh and the release of Shaim and two other guests who were sent to Kuchum by ambassadors, and from the property of the ambassadors I ask you to return the wagon with furs. In response, the Moscow authorities sent Kuchum several letters from Mametkul and Abdul-Khair with a proposal to transfer to the royal service and be sent to Moscow. Kuchum did not accept the diploma.
Kuchum, who highly valued freedom, did not at all want to come under the protection of the tsar. IN last years he, broken by failures, was more and more inclined towards peace with the Russians, but, however, he did not take any action, if possible he was playing for time and saving up strength for a decisive blow. Frightened by the rumors about a new raid by Kuchum, the tsarist authorities launched a decisive offensive.
In 1598, by decree of Tsar Boris Godunov, voivode A. Voeikov, with a detachment of 700 archers and Cossacks and 300 serving Tatars, left the Tara fortress "on a campaign for Tsar Kuchum." It is known that in the detachment of Voeikov there was an ally of the deceased Yermak, Ataman Ivan Groza.
On May 9, 1598, voivode A. Voeikov and voivode Prince I. Koltsov-Mosalsky set out on a campaign with a detachment of 700 Russians and 300 Tatars. On August 4, 1598, Voeikov set out from the city of Tara. His army consisted of 300 Cossacks, 30 serving Tatars, 60 Tatar horsemen, they attacked the khan in his camp, in the Irmen battle on August 20, 1598 killed many Tatars.
The battle of Irmen is the final defeat of the troops of Khan Kuchum by the Russian detachment of the governor A. Voeikov on August 20, 1598.
Being in the area of Lake Ubinskoye, the governor received information about the location of the Kuchum camp. At the head of a cavalry detachment of 405 (according to other sources, 397) people, A. Voeikov traveled about 400 kilometers in 5 days, discovered and suddenly attacked the fortified Khan's camp at the confluence of the Irmen River in the Ob (currently the vicinity of the village of Verkh-Irmen Ordynsky district of the Novosibirsk region), in which there were about 500 soldiers of Kuchum.
The battle lasted from sunrise on August 20 until noon, was fierce. The camp was taken by attack, the remnants of Kuchum's detachment were pressed to the banks of the Ob. According to Voeikov's report, Kuchum's brother, son and two grandsons, six princes, fifteen murzas and about 300 Tatar soldiers died in battle. Five younger sons of the khan, eight wives from his harem, five close associates of the khan, 150 soldiers were taken prisoner. However, the Khan himself with a detachment of 50 soldiers managed to break through. After a few days of pursuit, this detachment was overtaken by the Cossacks and killed, but Kuchum managed to escape this time. Despite his plight, he refused to enter the service of the Muscovite tsar. He roamed the Altai and Kuznetsk forests with several people, having lost all power, and soon died in a skirmish with local tribes or with Bukhara people in 1601.
This small-scale battle (less than 1,000 participants on both sides) had enormous consequences. The dominion of Kuchum was completely lost, all the West Siberian nomadic and sedentary tribes departed from him and swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar. The Siberian Khanate ceased to exist in fact, and a few years later, after the death of the last son of Kuchum, nominally. The vast territory from the Urals to the Ob became part of the Russian state, which proceeded to further rapid advance to the east.
The Russians returned to Tara on 23 August. Noble captives were sent from Tara to Tobolsk, and from there to Moscow. On the occasion of the brilliant victory won in Siberia, a thanksgiving service was served in Moscow.
During the first decades of the 17th century, the heirs of Kuchum - the princes Ablaikerim and Kirey - continued to resist. They took an active part in the uprising of the Siberian Tatars in the 1620-1630s in order to restore the Siberian Khanate, but they could no longer change the situation. By this time, a significant part of the Tatar nobility had transferred to the Russian service, which ensured the irreversibility of the annexation of the lands inhabited by Siberian Tatars to Russia. Although the threat from the princes, descendants of Kuchum, persisted until the second half of the 17th century.
