home > All about plumbing > The role of intuition in cognition and practical activity. The concept of intuition, its features. The last point is not explicitly found in some cases. But a significant number of discoveries or inventions, as the history of science and technology shows, is associated with the action "under

The role of intuition in cognition and practical activity. The concept of intuition, its features. The last point is not explicitly found in some cases. But a significant number of discoveries or inventions, as the history of science and technology shows, is associated with the action "under

Introduction______________________________________________________________3

The concept of intuition in the history of philosophy______________________________4

The concept of intuition, its features _____________________________________________6

Types of intuition

Formation and manifestation of intuition _____________________________ 12

Correlation between intuitive and discursive in cognition_______________20

Conclusion ____________________________________________________________22

References ________________________________________________23

INTRODUCTION

In obtaining new knowledge, logical thinking, methods and techniques for the formation of new concepts, and the laws of logic play an important role. But the experience of cognitive activity shows that ordinary logic in many cases is insufficient for solving scientific problems; the process of producing new information cannot be reduced to either inductively or deductively unfolded thinking. An important place in this process is occupied by intuition, which gives cognition a new impulse and direction of movement.

The presence of such a human ability is recognized by many eminent scientists of our time. Louis de Broglie, for example, noted that theories develop and often even change radically, which would be impossible if the foundations of science were purely rational. He became convinced, in his words, of the inevitable influence on scientific research of the individual characteristics of the scientist's thinking, which are not only rational in nature. “I, in particular,” writes Louis de Broglie, “mean such purely personal abilities, so different in different people, as imagination and intuition. Imagination, which allows us to imagine at once a part of the physical picture of the world in the form of a visual picture that reveals some of its details, intuition, which unexpectedly reveals to us in some kind of inner insight that has nothing to do with ponderous syllogism, the depths of reality, are possibilities that are organically inherent in human mind; they have played and are playing a significant role in the creation of science every day” (“On the Paths of Science”, Moscow, 1962, pp. 293-294).

Let's focus on intuition. Intuition, as a specific cognitive process that directly produces new knowledge, is just as universal, inherent in all people (albeit to varying degrees) ability, like feelings and abstract thinking.

THE CONCEPT OF INTUITION IN THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

In the history of philosophy, the problem of intuition was given much attention, the concept of intuition had a different content. Sometimes it was understood as a form of direct intellectual knowledge or contemplation (intellectual intuition). So, Plato understood by intuition the contemplation of ideas (prototypes of things in the sensible world), which is a kind of direct knowledge that comes as a sudden insight, involving a long preparation of the mind. There was a difference in the interpretation of intuition between Plato and Aristotle: the mind, according to Aristotle, “contemplates” the general in things themselves, according to Plato, it “remembers” ideal entities in a special world (see: Lebedev S. A. “Intuition as a method of scientific knowledge” Moscow, 1980, p. 29). But both could not imagine creativity without her. Philosophers of modern times, who developed methods of rational cognition of nature, also could not fail to note the violations of the logic of rational cognition, carried out through intuitions. Descartes stated: “By intuition I mean not faith in the shaky evidence of the senses, and not the deceptive judgment of a disordered imagination, but the concept of a clear and attentive mind, so simple and distinct that it leaves no doubt that we are thinking, or that one and the same, a solid concept of a clear and attentive mind, generated only by the natural light of reason and, due to its simplicity, more reliable than deduction itself ... ”(Descartes R. Selected Works. M., 1950. P. 86). R. Descartes believed that rational knowledge, having passed through the "purgatory" of methodological doubt, is associated with intuition, which gives the first principles, from which all other knowledge is then derived by deduction. “Propositions that directly follow from the first principle can be said to be known,” he wrote, “both intuitively and deductively, depending on the way they are considered, while the principles themselves are only intuitively, as well as, on the contrary, their individual consequences - only in a deductive way” (Descartes R. “Selected Works”. Moscow, 1950, p. 88).

Then it was interpreted as knowledge in the form of sensual contemplation (sensory intuition). “Unconditionally undoubted, clear, like the sun ... only sensual”, and therefore the secret of intuitive knowledge is “focused in sensibility” (Feuerbach L. “Selected Philosophical Works. In 2 vols.” T. 1. S. 187) .

Intuition was also understood as an instinct that directly, without prior learning, determines the forms of behavior. A. Bergson attached great importance to the problem of intuition. In particular, he drew attention to philosophical intuition, devoting a special work to it (published in Russian in 1911). He connected intuition with instinct, with the knowledge of the living, changeable, with synthesis, and the logical with intellect, with analysis. In his opinion, logic triumphs in science, which has solid bodies as its subject. Associating intuition with the acquisition of new knowledge in the form of sensory and conceptual images, he made a number of subtle observations; At the same time, relying on an idealistic worldview, he missed the opportunity for a broad scientific interpretation of intuition, which is already evident from his opposition of intuition to logic.

Intuition was also understood as a hidden, unconscious first principle of creativity (S. Freud).

In some currents of foreign philosophy (intuitionism, etc.), intuition is also interpreted as a divine revelation, as a completely unconscious phenomenon, incompatible with logic and life practice, experience.

Various interpretations of intuition in pre-Marxist or non-Marxist philosophical and psychological teachings emphasize in the phenomenon of intuition the general moment of immediacy in the process of cognition, in contrast (or in opposition) to the mediated nature of logical thinking.

THE CONCEPT OF INTUITION, ITS FEATURES

The process of thinking is not always carried out in a detailed and logically evident form. There are times when a person grasps a difficult situation extremely quickly, almost instantly, and finds the right solution. Sometimes in the innermost depths of the soul, as if in an influx, images striking with the power of insight appear, which far outstrip the systematized thought. The ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without substantiation with the help of evidence is called intuition (“Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary”, Moscow, 1989, p. 221).

Usually, characterizing intuition, note such features as suddenness, spontaneity, unconsciousness. Intuition is a complex cognitive act associated with the mediating role of human experience, with consciousness.

Indeed, let us take such a sign of intuition as suddenness. The solution to the problem always comes unexpectedly, by chance, and, it would seem, under conditions unsuitable for creativity, one way or another contrasting with the conditions of a purposeful scientific search. For a certain cycle of knowledge, suddenness really takes place. However, this is also confirmed by numerous facts, before an intuitive act is carried out, it is preceded by a period of prolonged work of consciousness. It was at this time that the foundations of a future discovery were laid, which in the future could happen suddenly. Intuition in this case only crowns the period of extensive complex intellectual activity of the human mind.

The same is true of the immediacy of intuition. It is customary to call direct knowledge (as opposed to indirect) such that is not based on logical proof. Strictly speaking, absolutely direct forms of knowledge do not exist. This applies equally to logical abstractions, and even to sensory perceptions. The latter are only apparently direct. In reality, however, they are mediated by past experience and even future experience. Intuition is also mediated by all previous human practice, by the activity of his thinking. According to P. V. Kopnin, intuition is direct knowledge only in the sense that at the moment a new position is put forward, it does not follow with logical necessity from the existing sensory experience and theoretical constructions (Kopnin P. V. “The epistemological and logical foundations of science”. S. 190). In this meaning, intuition (or "intuitive") is compared with "discursive" (from Latin discursus - reasoning, argument, argument) as well-founded previous judgments, taken on the basis of arguments, logical evidence; the discursive is mediated, the intuitive is directly obtained knowledge.

Equally relative is the unconsciousness of intuition. It is also a direct product of the previous conscious activity of a person and is associated with the short duration of solving a problem in certain situations. Intuition includes several stages: 1) accumulation and unconscious distribution of images and abstractions in the memory system; 2) unconscious combination and processing of accumulated abstractions, images and rules in order to solve a specific problem; 3) a clear understanding of the task; 4) unexpected for this person finding solutions (“Introduction to Philosophy”, Part 2, p. 346). The French mathematician and physicist A. Poincaré wrote about this feature of intuition: “What strikes here first of all are glimpses of sudden insight, which are signs of a previous long unconscious work. It is necessary to make one more remark about the circumstances under which this unconscious work takes place; it is possible and, in any case, fruitful only when, on the one hand, it is preceded by, and on the other hand, followed by a period of conscious work.

Sometimes the result remains unconscious, and intuition itself, with such an outcome of its action, is destined for only the fate of a possibility that has not become reality. The individual may not retain (or have) any recollection of the experienced act of intuition at all. One remarkable observation was made by the American mathematician Leonard Eugene Dixon. His mother and her sister, who were rivals in geometry at school, spent a long and fruitless evening solving a problem. At night, the mother dreamed of this problem, and she began to solve it aloud in a loud and clear voice; her sister, hearing this, got up and wrote it down. The next morning, she had the correct solution in her hands, unknown to Dixon's mother (Nalchadzhyan A.A. “Some psychological and philosophical problems of intuitive knowledge (intuition in the process of scientific creativity)”, M., 1972, p. 80). This example illustrates, among other things, the unconscious nature of the phenomenon called "mathematical dreams" and the operation of intuition on the unconscious level of the human psyche.

Thus, the intuitive ability of a person is characterized by: 1) the unexpectedness of the solution of the problem, 2) the unconsciousness of the ways and means of solving it, and 3) the immediacy of comprehending the truth at the essential level of objects.

These signs separate intuition from mental and logical processes close to it. But even within these limits, we are dealing with quite diverse phenomena. For different people, in different conditions, intuition can have a different degree of remoteness from consciousness, be specific in content, in the nature of the result, in depth of penetration into the essence, in significance for the subject, etc.

TYPES OF INTUITION

Intuition is divided into several types, primarily depending on the specifics of the subject's activity. Features of the forms of material practical activity and spiritual production also determine the features of the intuition of a steelworker, agronomist, doctor, and experimental biologist. There are such types of intuition as technical, scientific, everyday, medical, artistic, etc.

Intuition has long been divided into two varieties: sensual (premonition of danger, guessing insincerity, goodwill) and intellectual (instantaneous solution of a practical, theoretical, artistic or political problem).

By the nature of novelty, intuition is standardized and heuristic. The first of these is often called intuition-reduction. An example is the medical intuition of S. P. Botkin. It is known that while the patient was walking from the door to the chair (the length of the cabinet was 7 meters), S.P. Botkin mentally made a preliminary diagnosis. Most of his intuitive diagnoses turned out to be correct. On the one hand, in this case, as in general when making any medical diagnosis, there is a summing up of the particular (symptoms) under the general (nosological form of the disease); in this respect, intuition really emerges as a reduction, and there seems to be no novelty in it. But another aspect of consideration, namely the aspect of attitude to a specific object of study, the formulation of a specific diagnosis for an often ambiguous set of symptoms, reveals the novelty of the problem being solved. Since with such intuition, a certain “matrix” is still used - a scheme, insofar as it itself can be qualified as “standardized”.

Heuristic (creative) intuition differs significantly from standardized intuition: it is associated with the formation of a fundamentally new knowledge, new epistemological images, sensual or conceptual. The same S. P. Botkin, acting as a clinical scientist and developing the theory of medicine, used such intuition more than once in his scientific activities. She helped him, for example, in putting forward a hypothesis about the infectious nature of catarrhal jaundice ("Botkin's disease").

The heuristic intuition itself has its subspecies. For us, an important subdivision is based on the epistemological basis, that is, on the nature of the result. Of interest is the point of view according to which the essence of creative intuition lies in a kind of interaction of visual images and abstract concepts, and heuristic intuition itself appears in two forms: eidetic and conceptual.

In principle, the following ways of forming sensory images and concepts in human consciousness are possible: 1) a sensory-perceptual process, as a result of which sensory images appear; 2) sensory-associative process of transition from one image to another; 3) the process of transition from sensory images to concepts; 4) the process of transition from concepts to sensory images; 5) the process of logical inference, in which the transition from one concept to another is made. It is obvious that the first, second and fifth directions of creating epistemological images are not intuitive. Therefore, the assumption arises that the formation of intuitive meaning is associated with processes of the third and fourth types, that is, with the transition from sensory images to concepts and from concepts to sensory images. The legitimacy of such an assumption is confirmed by the fact that the nature of these processes is in good agreement with the most typical features of the intuitive “discernment of truth” recorded in phenomenological descriptions of intuition: in them, the sensory-visual is transformed into abstract-conceptual and vice versa. Between visual images and concepts there are no intermediate steps different from them; even the most elementary concepts differ from sensory representations. Here concepts arise that cannot be logically deduced from other concepts, and images that are not generated by other images according to the laws of sensory abstraction, and therefore it is natural that the results obtained seem “directly perceived”. This also explains the spasmodic nature of this transformation and the process of obtaining the result.

Examples of eidetic intuition are Kekule's visualization of the structure of the benzene molecule, or Rutherford's visualization of the structure of the atom. These representations are not reduced to a simple reproduction of the data of direct sensory experience and are formed with the help of concepts. Examples of conceptual intuition are the emergence of the concept of quaternions in Hamilton or the concept of neutrinos in Pauli. These concepts did not arise through consistent logical reasoning (although this process anticipated the opening), but spasmodically; the combination of appropriate sensual images was of great importance in their formation.

FORMATION AND MANIFESTATION OF INTUITION

Promising in terms of the possibilities of revealing the physiology of intuition are the studies of Canadian physiologists led by W. Penfield. Their studies have shown that when some areas of the brain are irritated by electrodes, emotions are evoked and a person experiences only an emotional state, such as fear, without remembering any event. Experiments also show that certain areas of the brain are "responsible" for the reproduction of events; such reproduction is accompanied by the appearance of emotions, the latter depending on the meaning of the event.

These data indicate the possible entry of the emotional component into the mechanism of intuition. Emotions themselves are not as specific as, say, sight. They are more general, integral, the same experience can be correlated with the appearance of heterogeneous sensory or conceptual images. It is possible that in the actual plan, i.e., in a given problem situation, the emotion that has arisen affects the areas of the cerebral cortex with long-term memory and, by association, causes past emotions, and with their help, the corresponding sensory and conceptual images or options close to them. . But other directions of emotions are also possible. One way or another, their role probably consists in retrieving from long-term memory of various options for solving a problem, and then choosing one of them at the final stage of the intuitive process. But it is possible that their role is different, that emotions determine the very choice of one or another solution from a variety of possible ones.

The speed with which intuition operates is mysterious. Many experimental data, including those obtained by W. Penfield, shed light on this aspect. Experiments have shown that three components of speech - ideational (conceptual), verbalization and motor - are localized relatively independently. Evaluating these data in terms of intuition, A. A. Nalchadzhyan writes: “If we accept this scheme, then we can conclude that wordless thinking with the absence or weak motor accompaniment is quite possible. And this is nothing more than subconscious or conscious, but figurative (noted by Einstein and Wertheimer) thinking ”(Nalchadzhyan A. A. “Some psychological and philosophical problems of intuitive knowledge (intuition in the process of scientific creativity)”, p. 149) . A. A. Nalchadzhyan gives very convincing arguments to confirm the position that after the cessation of the conscious analysis of a scientific problem, the process of solving it continues in the subconscious sphere, that the corresponding electrophysiological processes also do not stop, but are transformed, continue to flow, but only with changed characteristics.

With this form of thinking, the thought process is significantly accelerated. An amazing phenomenon is observed: the possibility of processing 109 bits of information per second at the unconscious level, and only 102 at the conscious level. All this is an important prerequisite for the deployment of fast thought processes, for operating with a huge amount of "pure" information in the subconscious (unconscious) sphere. The subconscious mind is capable of a short time a huge amount of work that is beyond the power of consciousness in the same short period of time.

The aesthetic factor also takes part in the process of intuitive decision. With any kind of intuition - eidetic or conceptual - there is, as it were, the completion of a picture (situation) to integrity.

The relationship of the whole and the part, the system and the element is also introduced into the consciousness and the unconscious sphere of the human psyche in the form of a certain scheme or structure (in the most general form), putting on a psychological attitude to achieve harmony and perfection. The desire for harmony and beauty, carried out on a subconscious level, can serve as a decisive factor in choosing from a variety of options in favor of a more perfect one.

Both aesthetic and, presumably, ethical factors, as well as emotional and praxeological factors - all of them, to one degree or another, are connected with the formation of intuition and its action in problem situations. Their discovery in the processes of intuition testifies, among other things, that it is by no means “pure” physiological and biochemical formations that participate in cognitive activity, but the human personality, basing its knowledge on these mechanisms, using them as means, but deploying this activity in a wide range of ways. the field of diverse, living human relations and in practice. Individual cognition is peculiar, as is the specific and intuitive ability of each person, his life uniqueness; but through all this specificity, the general sociocultural determination manifests its effect cognitive activity, the social nature of the human personality.

Consideration of the question of the possible mechanism and components of intuition allows us to see that intuition is not reducible to either sensory-sensitive or abstract-logical cognition; it contains both forms of cognition, but there is also something that goes beyond these limits and does not allow it to be reduced to either one or the other form; it gives new knowledge, not attainable by any other means.

TO general conditions the formation and manifestation of intuition include the following: 1) thorough professional training of the subject, deep knowledge of the problem; 2) search situation, problem state; 3) the action of the subject of the search dominant on the basis of continuous attempts to solve the problem, strenuous efforts to solve the problem or task; 4) the presence of a "hint".

The last point in some cases is not explicitly revealed, as it was in the fact reported by the mathematician L. Yu. Dixon. But a significant number of discoveries or inventions, as the history of science and technology shows, is associated with the action of a “hint”, which serves as a “trigger” for intuition. As such a realizing reason for I. Newton, as you know, there was an apple that fell on his head and caused the idea of universal gravitation; Kekule - a snake that grabbed its own tail, etc.

The role of the "hint" is clearly visible from the following experiment. The conditions of creative activity were modeled (Ponomarev Ya. A. "Psychology of creativity". M., 1976. P. 213 - 220). A large number of adults (600 people) were asked to solve a problem called "Four Dots". Her formulation is: “Given four points; it is required to draw three straight lines through these four points, without lifting the pencil from the paper, so that the pencil returns to the starting point. The subjects were selected from among those who did not know the principle of solving the problem. The solution time was limited to 10 minutes. All subjects, without exception, after a series of unsuccessful attempts, stopped solving and recognized the problem as unsolvable. To achieve success, it was necessary to “break out” of the area of the plane bounded by points, but this did not occur to anyone - everyone remained inside this area. Then the subjects were offered a "hint". They learned the rules of the game of khalma. According to the rules of this game, they had to jump over three black ones in one move of the white chip so that the white chip returned to its original place. While performing this action, the subjects traced with their hands a route that coincided with the scheme for solving the problem, i.e., corresponding to the graphical expression for solving this problem (the subjects were also given other prompts). If such a hint was given before the presentation of the problem, then success was minimal; if, after the subject got into a problem situation and became convinced of the futility of the attempts to solve it, the problem was solved. This simple experience suggests that the intrinsic difficulty of the problem arises because its conditions directly reproduce, in the subject's past experience, extremely well-established empirically generalized techniques - the union of points by the shortest distance. The subjects, as it were, are locked in a section of the area, limited by four points, while it is necessary to leave this section. It follows from experience that favorable circumstances develop when the subject, fruitlessly searching for a solution to the problem, exhausts the wrong methods, but has not yet reached the stage at which the search dominant goes out, i.e., when the subject loses interest in the problem, when already undertaken and unsuccessful attempts are repeated when the situation of the problem ceases to change and the subject recognizes the problem as unsolvable. Hence the conclusion that the success of an intuitive solution depends on how much the researcher managed to get rid of the pattern, to be convinced of the unsuitability of previously known paths and at the same time to remain passionate about the problem, not to recognize it as unsolvable. The hint turns out to be decisive in freeing oneself from standard, stereotyped trains of thought. The specific form of the hint, those specific objects and phenomena that are used in this case, are an insignificant circumstance. Its general meaning is important. The idea of a clue should be embodied in some specific phenomena, but in which ones it will not be a decisive factor.

The importance for intuition of hints, behind which are analogies, general schemes, general principles for solving a problem or a problem, leads to certain practical recommendations: a subject who is in a creative search should strive not only for the maximum information in his specialty and related disciplines, but also to expand the range of their interests, including music, painting, fiction, science fiction, detective literature, popular science articles, socio-political magazines, newspapers; the wider the range of interests and horizons of the individual, the more factors there will be for the operation of intuition.

The American physiologist W. B. Kennon notes the following unfavorable conditions for intuition that hinder its manifestation (“Intuition and scientific creativity”, p. 5): mental and physical overwork, irritation over trifles, noise, household and money worries, general depression, strong emotional experiences, work "under pressure", forced breaks in work and just anxiety and fear associated with the expectation of possible breaks.

Valuable and instructive are the observations of the scientists themselves on their work, observations, which, unfortunately, are too few. Speaking in November 1891 with a speech, which, by the way, had great autobiographical interest, the German physiologist G. Helmholtz said: “I confess ... I have always been more pleased with those areas where you do not have the need to count on the help of chance or a happy thought. But, having quite often found myself in that unpleasant situation where one has to wait for such glimpses, I have gained some experience as to when and where they appeared to me, an experience which, perhaps, will be useful to others. These happy inspirations often invade the head so quietly that one does not immediately notice their significance; sometimes only chance will indicate later when and under what circumstances they came; otherwise - the thought is in the head, but where it comes from - you don’t know yourself. But in other cases, the thought strikes you suddenly, without effort, like inspiration. As far as I can judge from personal experience, it is never born in a tired brain and never at a desk. Each time I first had to turn my task in every way in every way, so that all its twists and turns lay firmly in my head ... Then, when the onset of fatigue had passed, an hour of complete bodily freshness and a feeling of calm well-being were required - and only then did good ideas come ... Especially they came willingly ... during the hours of a leisurely ascent through the wooded mountains, on a sunny day. The slightest amount of liquor seemed to scare them away. Such moments of fruitful abundance of thoughts were, of course, very gratifying; less pleasant was the reverse side - when saving thoughts did not appear. Then for whole weeks, for whole months I was tormented by a difficult question ”(Gelmholtz G. “Public lectures given at the Imperial Moscow University in favor of the Helmholtz Fund”. M., 1892. S. XXII - XXIII).

Acquaintance with the conditions for the formation and manifestation of intuition allows us to outline some other practical recommendations. However, it is necessary to make a reservation that any recommendations must be consistent with individuality, with the characteristics of the personality, otherwise they may harm the manifestation of creative abilities. Nevertheless, the recommendations are not useless.

Since the intuitive work of thinking takes place in the subconscious sphere, continues even when the subject is "disconnected" from the problem, it can be concluded that such a temporary disconnection can be useful. J. Hadamard, for example, advised, after the first serious work on a problem, to postpone its solution for a while and deal with other problems. A scientist, he said, can work on several problems in parallel, from time to time moving from one to another, to activate the subconscious mechanisms of thinking. A good addition to this recommendation may be the advice of D. Poya: it is better not to put aside an unsolved problem without a feeling of at least a small success; at least some small detail must be settled; we need to understand some side of the issue by the time we stop working on a solution.

One should not overestimate the importance of dreams in the manifestation of intuition, nevertheless, the above facts speak in favor of an attentive attitude to their content. The following testimony is curious: “Prof. P. N. Sakkulin attaches such importance to subconscious creativity during sleep that for many years, falling asleep, he puts paper and a pencil near him, so that if he wakes up at night and some new thought or clear the formulation of what he thought before going to bed or for a longer period of time before, he could immediately sketch it out in a few words ”(Veinberg B.P. “Experience in the methodology of scientific work and preparation for it”. M., 1958. S. 16). Of course, such an attitude towards dreams can be somehow useful if before that intense mental work has been done on the problem. If this is not the case, then no sleep or prolonged wakefulness in bed after waking up in anticipation of "insight" will not lead to discovery or invention.

It is not uncommon, as you know, that ideas appear during a walk, while reading a newspaper, etc. This seems paradoxical: with intellectual intuition, a person creates most actively and efficiently ... when he is resting. Noting this paradox, St. Vasilev rightly writes that this contradiction is inexplicable and unacceptable only from the standpoint of a metaphysical (one-sided) approach that opposes the conscious to the subconscious (Vasilev St. "The place of intellectual intuition in scientific knowledge" // "Lenin's theory of reflection in the light of the development of science and practice." Sofia, 1981. T. 1. S. 370 - 371). A concrete study of the mechanism of interaction of consciousness with the unconscious and subconscious can give scientists real means of controlling the process of intuition and significantly affect their creative ability.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE INTUITIVE AND DISCOURSE IN COGNITION

It can be seen from the previous material that heuristic intuition does not exist in absolute isolation from discursive, logical intuition. The discursive precedes the intuitive and acts as an obligatory general condition for the formation and manifestation of intuition in the sphere of consciousness. The logical, as thought, also takes place at the level of the subconscious and is included in the mechanism of the most intuitive process. The discursive must complement the accomplished intuition, follow it.

What caused the need to complete the intuitive discursive? The probabilistic nature of the result of intuition.

The researchers note that the intuitive ability was formed, apparently, as a result of the long development of living organisms due to the need to make decisions with incomplete information about events, and the ability to intuitively learn can be regarded as a probabilistic response to probabilistic environmental conditions. From this point of view, since the scientist is not given all the prerequisites and means to make a discovery, insofar as he makes a probabilistic choice.

The probabilistic nature of intuition means for a person both the possibility of obtaining true knowledge and the danger of having erroneous, untrue knowledge. The English physicist M. Faraday, known for his work in the field of electricity, magnetism and electrochemistry, wrote that no one suspects how many conjectures and theories that arise in the head of a researcher are destroyed by his own criticism and hardly one tenth of all his assumptions and hopes come true . The conjecture that has arisen in the head of a scientist or designer must be verified. Testing the same hypothesis, as we know, is carried out in the practice of scientific research. “Intuition is enough to discern the truth, but it is not enough to convince others and oneself of this truth. This requires proof” (“Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary”, M., 1989, p. 222).

Evidence (in a broad sense) includes an appeal to the sensory perceptions of some physical objects and phenomena, as well as logical reasoning, arguments. In deductive sciences (logic, mathematics, in some sections of theoretical physics), proofs are chains of correct conclusions leading from true premises to provable theses. Without logical reasoning based on the law of sufficient reason, it is impossible to come to the establishment of the truth of the put forward position. A. Poincare emphasized that in science logic and intuition each play their necessary role; both are inevitable.

In this aspect, creativity acts as a unity of the rational and the irrational. Creativity “is not the opposite of rationality, but is its natural and necessary addition. One without the other simply could not exist. Therefore, creativity is not irrational, that is, not hostile to rationality, not anti-rational, as many thinkers of the past thought ... On the contrary, creativity, proceeding subconsciously or unconsciously, not obeying certain rules and standards, ultimately at the level of results can be consolidated with rational activity , included in it, can become its integral part or, in some cases, lead to the creation of new types of rational activity ”(“ Introduction to Philosophy ”. T. 2. M., 1989. P. 345).

CONCLUSION

However, it should be emphasized that, no matter how great the power of imagination and intuitive insight, they are in no way opposed to conscious and rational acts in cognition and creativity. All these essential spiritual forces of a person act in unity, and only in each specific act of creativity can one or the other prevail.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alekseev P. V., Panin A. V. "Theory of knowledge and dialectics" Moscow, 1991 p. 168-185.

Alekseev P. V., Panin A. V. "Philosophy" Moscow, 2003 p. 317-336.

Broglie L. de "On the paths of science" Moscow, 1962 p. 293-294.

Vasilev St. "The place of intellectual intuition in scientific knowledge" // "Lenin's theory of reflection in the light of the development of science and practice" Sofia, 1981 V. 1 p. 370 - 371.

"Introduction to Philosophy" Part 2 p. 346.

Weinberg B. P. "Experience in the methodology of scientific work and preparation for it" Moscow, 1958 p. 16.

Helmholtz G. "Public lectures given at the Imperial Moscow University in favor of the Helmholtz Fund" Moscow, 1892 p. XXII - XXIII.

Descartes R. "Selected Works" Moscow, 1950 p. 86, 88.

Cannon W. B. «Intuition and Scientific Creativity» p. 5.

Kopnin P. V. «The epistemological and logical foundations of science» p. 190.

Korshunov A. M. "Knowledge and activity" Moscow, 1984 p. 38-40.

Lebedev S. A. "Intuition as a method of scientific knowledge" Moscow, 1980 p. 29.

Nalchadzhyan A. A. "Some psychological and philosophical problems of intuitive knowledge (intuition in the process of scientific creativity)" Moscow, 1972 p. 80, 149.

Ponomarev Ya. A. "Psychology of creativity" Moscow, 1976 p. 213-220.

Spirkin A. G. "Fundamentals of Philosophy" Moscow, 1988 p. 299-302.

roles Abstract >> Philosophy

Memory plays a very important cognitive role. It combines the past and ... the development of the world (or the ability to knowledge): faith, intuition, instinct, feelings, experiences and ... in this process it takes intuition reporting knowledge new momentum and direction...

A. Sound judgment, phronesis (practical wisdom), insight or penetration: the ability to quickly and correctly assess the importance and significance of a problem, the plausibility of a theory, the applicability and reliability of a method, and the usefulness of an action.

B. Intellectual intuition as a normal way of thinking.

Intuition does not require proof, it does not rely on reasoning. Intuitive thinking proceeds imperceptibly, "naturally", it is not as tiring as logical thinking, involving willpower. But as soon as a person trusts intuition, he loses the thread of logical reasoning, plunges into the elements of internal states, vague sensations and forebodings, images and symbols.

I like the example of Luris from his article “Intuition. Introduction to the problem”, in which he talks about the interaction of consciousness and subconsciousness: “Imagine a pilot in the cockpit of an airplane. Before his eyes is a control panel, where he sees the indicators of all devices, and a fairly large space opens through the glazed cabin. And, guided by his experience and what he sees, he pilots the plane. The dispatcher is on the ground. He cannot directly control the aircraft, but he has colossal information that is inaccessible to the pilot. For example, that there is a storm front ahead, that another plane is moving in the lower corridor outside the coverage of the radar, that the airport has closed the runway for technical reasons. The pilot is consciousness. The manager is the subconscious. It is easy to imagine the whole range of consequences when ignoring the information coming from the dispatcher, and even more so, if his instructions are not followed directly.

When you feel something that you cannot explain, this is probably intuition. The nature of intuition is such that any of us, without exception, has had an intuitive experience at least once in our lives. I also experienced this once:

At the beginning of my career, I dreamed of going to V. Shatalov in order to generalize his experience. And so, in 1988, my dream came true, a group of teachers was sent from our Tselinograd region to Donetsk, and a departure was scheduled for tomorrow. Suddenly, while packing things for the road, I “heard” a voice that clearly told me: “Don’t fuss, you won’t go anywhere, you’re going in vain.” No, he didn't say it out loud, but he firmly told me the same thing: "You're not going anywhere." I tried to talk to him, asking, “What can prevent me?”, Listed some reasons. There was no answer. The excitement only increased. And then the phone rang, I was informed that my fourteen-year-old brother had been arrested ...

Analyzing this case, I still wonder: "What is the nature of intuition?" And more and more I come to the conclusion that this inexplicable concept has a spiritual origin. It has something to do with our subconscious. We do not attach much importance to this. We automatically say: "he has a well-developed intuition." But even Plato considered intuition highest level human wisdom, since it is thanks to intuition that we comprehend the transcendent entities (ideas) to which all things from our experience owe their existence in space and time.

In the modern world, the time has come to free intuition from the mystical aura of "poetic" inspiration, defining it as a purely psychic phenomenon that requires study and description. Intuition is a cognitive faculty inherent in sensation, because it arises only on the basis of direct empirical data obtained in sensory experience; at the same time, only sensory perception can provide direct knowledge in cognitive activity.

The nature of intuition manifests itself by some urges that arise in our head quite spontaneously, unexpectedly, and often we ignore them, or simply simply write them off as our imagination. And only then, after some time has passed, do we understand that these promptings were true, and we should have listened to them.

As you know, creativity is the highest form of the cognitive process. "Creativity is a spiritual activity, the result of which is the creation of original values, the establishment of new, earlier unknown facts, properties and patterns of the material world and spiritual culture "(Spirkin A.G.) How can superintuition be explained? There are people, contactees in the highest sense - these are geniuses, talents, great composers, poets, scientists. They receive this information as- they process it through their brains, and there is nothing humiliating for a person here, because the universal mind, the universal spirit pervades everything.

Cognition is a single monolithic process of reflecting reality, the complexity and versatility of which is expressed in several key points: "From living contemplation to abstract thinking, and from it to practice - this is the dialectical path of knowing the truth" (V.I. Lenin).

Intuition is a specific human ability derived from consciousness. Thanks to the "reduction" of mental processes, there is a colossal gain in time. Calculations show that at the unconscious-psychic level, approximately 10,000,000 times more information is processed per unit of time than at the conscious level. In addition, there are significant energy savings. It has been repeatedly noted that an intuitive act is performed quickly and<легко>, which indicates an excess energy potential.

Intuition usually manifests itself in a state of spiritual and spiritual uplift. physical strength. In intuitive creativity, this state is known as inspiration. In the process of intuitive comprehension, there is an increase in the functional activity of all sense organs, as a result of which memory improves. Very often, an idea, an idea is intuitively formed when a person's attention (and attention is always an expenditure of energy) is focused on a completely different work.

Intuition is helped by a hint, which is often played by a specific object that has many features of the desired solution. When the decision is ripe, sometimes a random clue can play the role of the last push, causing a discharge, explosion, insight. Only people endowed with strong intuition are capable of a holistic perception of complex objects as simple and indecomposable. Their complexity turns into a simple and unified quality.

Intuition is not some mystical ability of clairvoyance, but one of the two main and integral forms of cognitive activity. Along with intelligence, intuition is present in all operations in all areas of knowledge related to productive learning,

People who believe that knowledge can only be obtained by intellectual means are suspicious of intuition, because its results seem to them to fall from heaven like gifts of the gods or influx. To this we can add the dubious assertion that when a situation is thought of as a whole, it always appears as an indivisible, holistic totality, "all or nothing", like a flash of light or insight. In accordance with this belief, the intuitive feeling is not accessible to analysis, and does not require it.

The twentieth century actually translated the concept of "intuition" from sacred concepts into the sphere of scientific research. And the 21st century is likely to be the century of practical training in intuition.

Probably, very soon children will be divided not into gifted and ordinary, but into right-handed, left-handed. Schools will be formed according to completely different criteria: the gymnasium "Right hemisphere for children with developed intuition", the lyceum for "children with extrasensory abilities." Teachers will have to master the paranormal method of teaching "indigo" children, who master educational material and acquire knowledge in completely different ways. It is possible that in the near future innovations in teaching will not consist in the application of new methods, but in the application of psychological and pedagogical teaching methods for the development of intuition.

Be that as it may, we are for scientific intuition, but against intuitive science.

At the entrance to the school, as Dante would say, there should be a demand:

Here it is necessary that the soul be firm,

Here fear should not give advice...

Here intuition alone can never

Give the key to unlocking a scientific secret.

intuition cognition cryptognostics

Early ancient philosophy

The unity of the world and knowledge in early ancient philosophy is accepted as a self-evident fact that does not require proof. The beginning of the consideration of the universal unity of all phenomena is the material principle, of which the whole world, surrounding man and man himself, consists. For example, according to Democritus, what is perceived by the senses has its basis in the unity of the composition of any thing - in atoms. Pythagoras laid the foundations for a quantitative-mathematical explanation of unity.

Philosophy of modern times - Kant defines the category unity primarily subjective and psychological. Hegel explains unity, as a universal logical category, which also applies to things outside of consciousness, which are accepted only as a product of the activity of absolute thinking. He explains unity as the identity of phenomena, as the unity of the different and the opposite, which is carried out by their transformation into each other, as the transition of opposites, which is carried out continuously in the process of development. In this understanding, unity is realized through its own opposite - through difference and opposition.

8 Movement is the mode of existence of matter. D. including all processes in nature and society. In the most general form.D. - this is a change in general, any interaction of material objects and a change in their states. There is no matter in the world without movement, just as there can be no D. without matter. The motion of matter is absolute, while any rest is relative and represents one of the moments of motion. D. matter is diverse in its manifestations and exists in various forms. Any object exists only due to the fact that it reproduces certain types movements. Motion is intrinsic to matter.

2 main types of movement:

1. D. when the quality of the item is maintained;

2. change in the qualitative state of the object. Some forms of movement turn into others. The process of development is the transition of one quality to another, the directed formation of new systems that are born from previous systems.

2 types of development processes:

1-qualitative transformations that do not go beyond the corresponding type of matter, a certain level of its organization;

2-processes of transition from one level to another.

The variety of forms of matter movement is associated with a certain level of organization of matter, each of which is characterized by its own system of law and carrier

Movement is a phenomenon that reflects change; an attribute of matter associated with any change in the moments of objective reality; philosophical category reflecting any changes in the world. In the European tradition, the concept of movement is semantically differentiated: it can be “movement in general”, standing in line with such concepts as “space”, “time” or “energy”, mechanical movement, it can have a direction, it can reflect a qualitative change , development (progress, regress), etc. In dialectical materialism, movement is an objective way of existence of matter, its absolute integral attribute, without which it cannot exist and which cannot exist without it; according to this worldview, movement is absolute, and rest is relative, since it is movement in balance. Contrary to popular belief that motion is a state of matter opposite to rest, this is not so. Rest is only a special case of motion. For movement as for the ontological basis of being, the same indestructibility and eternity are postulated, as for being itself. Having appeared along with being, it does not stop, and therefore it is impossible to create it again. Relativism absolutizes movement, while the Eleatics deny it altogether. The laws of dialectical logic are built on the basis of the awareness of movement not only of a mechanical process.

9 Awareness of being as a kind of problem that needs to be resolved was first realized in the philosophy of the Eleatic school of antiquity (VI-V centuries BC).

Its recognized leader, Parmenides, discovered that the logic of understanding the category of "being" inevitably leads to very unusual conclusions. His reasoning can be summarized as follows.

Being is everything about which one can say: "it is" or "it exists". Is there non-existence? If we admit that “non-existence is”, then we will get a logical error: what is not (non-existence) is there ?! To avoid it, you just need to deprive "non-existence" of the status of existence. Therefore, the only logically correct version of the relationship between being and non-being can only be the judgment: “there is existence, there is no non-existence” (what is - exists; what is not - does not exist).

But if there is no non-existence, then nothing can either arise (out of non-existence) or disappear (go into non-existence). And if nothing arises and disappears, then, consequently, nothing changes, i.e. does not move. Being is immutable and motionless! Other characteristics of being are derived in a similar way: it is one (not multiple) and indivisible.

10 The meaning of human life is in the self-realization of the individual, in the human need to create, give, share with others, sacrifice oneself for the sake of others. The meaning of life is the choice of each individual. This is an independent awareness of values that orient a person not to have, but to be (Erich From)

The meaning of life, the meaning of life- a philosophical and spiritual problem related to the definition of the ultimate goal of existence, the purpose of mankind, man as a biological species, one of the main worldview concepts that is of great importance for the formation of the spiritual and moral image of the individual. The question of the meaning of life can also be understood as a subjective assessment of the life lived and the compliance of the results achieved with the original intentions, as a person’s understanding of the content and direction of his life, his place in the world, as the problem of a person’s impact on the surrounding reality and setting goals by a person that go beyond his life. . The question of the meaning of life is one of the traditional problems of philosophy, theology and fiction, where it is considered mainly from the point of view of determining what is the most worthy meaning of life for a person.

11 Pan He has pontheistic ideas and a dualistic worldview. In his opinion, there are two natures: the visible (matter) the invisible (form), there is a hidden relationship between them, and they are realized in 3 worlds: the macrocosm, the microcosm (human), the symbolic world (the bible). The world from his point of view is mired in evil. The support of man is labor. And evil prevails because a person is busy with other than his own business. The aim of philosophy is discovery and its affinity. Realization of the requirement to know thyself.

Origin and formation domestic science associated with the name Lomonosov, who developed a corpuscular philosophy, where he substantiated the knowledge of the world with two concepts that do not contradict each other, through scientific data and through divine revelation.

Radishchev- in Soviet philosophy, he was seen as a revolutionary. His book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" was seen as a call to revolt or a revolutionary manifesto

Radishchev's ideals:

1. he shares the idea of the equality of all people from birth

2. the law must be the same for all

3. Equal distribution of property in society.

4. Moderate punishment for those who have crossed the law.

12 Social Relations

These are the relations between members of social communities and these communities regarding their social status, image and way of life, ultimately about the conditions for the formation and development of personality, social communities. They are manifested in the position of individual groups of workers in the labor process, communication links between them, i.e. in the mutual exchange of information to influence the behavior and performance of others, as well as to assess their own position, which affects the formation of the interests and behavior of these groups.

There are several classifications of social relations. In particular, there are:

class relations

National relations

ethnic relations

group relations

Interpersonal relationships

Social relations develop in all spheres of public life.

13Hobbes on the problems of the relationship between man and society. (16th century)

Materialist "Fundamentals of Philosophy" "O Man"

Hobbes created the first complete system of mechanical materialism, which corresponded to the requirements of the natural sciences of that time. Geometry for mechanics - ideal patterns of thinking. Nature appears to Hobbes as a set of extended bodies, differing in figure, position and movement (-mechanical). Gos Hobbes is seen as the result of an agreement between people, putting an end to the "war of all against all." He also extols the role of the state. he is for the monarchy. He considered the main subject of study of phil and science to be nature and people, the source of fil is the mind, and the source of religion is the authority of the church. According to Hobbes, human community can exist if the natural law based on reason becomes the rule, by which everyone ascribes to himself abstinence from everything that, in his opinion, may be harmful to him. Natural law is a rule that lies not in the agreement of people among themselves, but in the agreement of a person with reason, it is an indication of reason as to what we should strive for and what we should avoid for the sake of our self-preservation.

14 Cognition in its most general form is a person's activity in acquiring knowledge about the world around him, about the person himself, about relationships.

Cognition breaks up, as it were, into two halves, or rather parts: sensual and rational.

Human cognition of the objective world begins with the help of the senses, interacting with certain objects, we get a sense of perception and representation. The results of the received sensory data are processed in our minds at the level of rational knowledge with the help of concepts, judgments and conclusions. The concept reflects the subject of thought in its general and essential features. Judgment is a form of thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or denied about the subject of thought. By means of inference, from one or more judgments, a judgment is necessarily deduced that contains new knowledge. Inferences are of various types: inductive, deductive and by analogy. A peculiar form of conjugation of the sensual and rational is also intuition - the ability of direct or direct (in the form of some kind of insight, insight) discernment of the truth. In intuition, only the result (conclusion, truth) is clearly and clearly realized; the concrete processes leading to it remain, as it were, behind the scenes, in the realm and depths of the unconscious.

15 NIETZSCHE

A follower of Schopenhauer's "school of life" works: "Beyond Good and Evil" "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" is a representative of counter-culture and negelism. The philosophy of Nietzsche is understood as the personal creativity of the thinker. The main life is the will to power, the main craving of all living things for self-affirmation. To ordinary people (man of the masses), he contrasts the aristocrats of the spirit, whose purpose is the cultivation of the "superman" who, being outside moral standards overcomes the total lies of the globe. He called for a reassessment of the values of the "morality of slaves" (in the Christian-humanistic sense) of the morality of the gods. He believes that the prevailing stereotypes of thinking are opposed to the dynamics of life.

Among philosophers, Nietzsche is a troublemaker and a noble pirate. He frightens the sleeping, rams the fortresses of the townsfolk, sweeps away moral postulates, kills God, destroys church foundations. Nietzsche considered himself a born psychologist - "called to be a psychologist and scout of souls." Some of the things he says amaze the imagination with their accuracy and purposefulness of diagnostics. From Nietzsche's point of view, psychology underlies everything, and is closely intertwined with other parts of his teaching.

16 TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES,

Culture can be defined as a qualitative characteristic of human life and the “second nature” reality created by him, where spiritual values are a priority. Spirituality is primarily a manifestation of the inner freedom of a person who shares the highest ideals of goodness, beauty and truth.

Natural symbolic type. This is historically the first type of culture that manifested itself in the culture of primitive society. Here the spiritual is manifested through natural symbolism. Worldview, religious ideas, economic activities, rituals, all kinds of art are inextricably linked with each other and are aimed at a single goal.

Anthropocosmogonic type of culture characteristic of the period of the Ancient World and is determined by the desire of man to connect his existence with the cosmic order. Orientation to space as the perfection of the ideal of beauty and harmony.

Christian-religious type culture corresponds to the medieval period of development of European culture. core culture of the Middle Ages became the Christian religion.

Universal harmonic type historically corresponds to the culture of the Renaissance.

The main idea of the new culture was the harmonious development of the individual, society and nature. The main principle is humanism who proclaimed the highest value of man and his good.

Rational-normative type culture is a separate cultural and historical integrity.

Critical-educational type corresponds to the Age of Enlightenment. The general spirit of the era is the desire to subordinate the entire worldview of a person to the dominance of reason

Romantic-utopian - (new time)

Individual-progmatic-(bourgeoisie)

Totalitarian-bureaucratic

Democratic-psychiotropic-(post-industrial)

17 .Freud - "Totem and Taboo", "Psychology of the Masses and Analysis of the Human Self"

various theories of psychoanalysis show the role of the unconscious in a person's conscious life. Mental life that takes place without the participation of the conscious, outside the control of the mind, is denoted by the unconscious.

The founder of the doctrine of the unconscious Australian psychologist Freud, he believed that in the structure of human spiritual experience there are 3 levels - 1) IT, which controls the libido. 2) Super-I-socio-cultural normatives, attitudes that form the system of social. filters. 3) I-consciousness-task to coordinate the requirement of SvehI and IT.

Oedipus complex-influence to the parent. According to Freud, every person strives to satisfy their instincts and desires.

Yung - the collective unconscious - forms the psyche and consciousness of a person,

Erich From introduced the concept of Neo-Freudianism, he overcame orthodox Friedism, and abandoned the doctrine of libido.

18 alienation is a social process during which a person's activity, together with its results, turns into an independent force that dominates him and is hostile to him. Alienation can only be removed in a society where all the rights and freedoms of the individual are fully exercised.

Freedom is a specific way of being a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an act in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on his awareness of the objective properties and relations of things, the laws of the world around him.

19 The system of views of the ancestor of objective idealism gravitates toward a religious worldview. He perceives the world as a divine order, deployed by the higher mind "the beautiful world of things." This applies both to the socially, state-organized world at the micro level, and to the cosmos at the macro level. However, Plato's point of view on society and the state is based on faith in the spiritual, absolutely free and personal God of Christianity, that world religion that will emerge three and a half centuries after the death of the thinker.

The fundamental idea of Plato as a whole is the idea of order and harmony that exists at any stage of this “system”: in the universe, in public life, in the person himself. “The dignity of every thing - whether it be utensils, a body, a soul or another living being - arises in all its glory not by chance, but through coherence, through the art that is attached to it ... This means that this is some kind of order inherent in each thing and each things special, makes every thing good. .

Plato imposes on the state - the obligation to guarantee the triumph of common virtue and a fair distribution of benefits. At the same time, the interests of the whole in the state prevail over the interests of groups and classes. The supreme interests of preserving the unity and improving the human race deny the rigid impenetrability of the hereditary castes of rulers and subjects. Equal opportunities granted to all citizens from birth to achieve a high political position in society also serve as a guarantee against caste.

According to Plato, it is not enough for people to develop the economy, technical progress coming from Prometheus. They must have a culture of social, political communication, a culture of ownership of state-legal opportunities and means. They must follow the norms of ethics, which are prompted by their conscience, invested in them at the behest of Zeus by Hermes.

Thus, Plato sees the essence of the state in a strong social association and organization of interaction and mutual assistance of citizens. “Many people,” he writes, “gather together to live together and help each other.” The meaning of the existence of the state is not in the political suppression of the majority by the minority, and in the economic and social oppression of some classes by others, not in the spiritual and intellectual expansion of the higher over the lower.

The purpose of the state, according to Plato, is to ensure a fair community, in which it must do its job, perform its function in the social organism, not appropriating other people's rights and imposing on another its duties, feeling the care of others and giving others their ability, honed to perfection.

Plato also puts forward his own plan for the state structure, according to this plan:

the entire population of the state (polis) is divided into three classes - philosophers, warriors, workers;

workers (peasants and artisans) are engaged in rough physical labor, create wealth may own private property to a limited extent;

warriors are engaged exercise, train, maintain order in the state, if necessary - participate in hostilities;

philosophers (wise men) - develop philosophical theories, learn the world, teach, govern the state;

philosophers and warriors should not have private property;

citizens of the state spend together free time, eat together (have meals), rest together;

there is no marriage, all wives and children are common;

the labor of slaves is allowed and welcomed, as a rule, barbarians captured.

Later, Plato revised some of the ideas of his project, allowing small private property and personal property for all classes, but other provisions of this plan were retained.

20 The concept of a picture of the world. Scientific and religious pictures of the world. The picture of the world is a body of knowledge that gives an integral understanding (scientific, just theoretical or everyday) of those complex processes that take place in nature and society, in man himself. Each picture of the world has its own semantic center, around which all the components that make up the integral image of the Universe are located. Different pictures of the world are described in different cultural languages. Each picture of the world must include ideas about space and time ( essential attributes life) and its most important component should be the position in the world of man, which is concretized through the concept of the origin and prospects of mankind, the possibilities of man as a kind, values and goals that individuals can and should strive for. All KM cannot take the person himself out of their framework, he finds himself inside it. The problems of the world and the problems of man are always closely intertwined.

The scientific picture of the world may differ from religious ideas about the world based on the authority of the prophets, religious tradition, sacred texts, etc. Therefore, religious ideas are more conservative in contrast to scientific ones, which change as a result of the discovery of new facts. In turn, the religious concepts of the universe can change in order to approach the scientific views of their time. At the heart of obtaining a scientific picture of the world is an experiment that allows you to confirm the reliability of certain judgments. At the heart of the religious picture of the world lies the belief in the truth of certain judgments belonging to some kind of authority.

The scientific picture of the world is a set of theories in the aggregate describing known to man natural world, a holistic system of ideas about general principles and the laws of the structure of the universe The picture of the world is a systemic formation, therefore its change cannot be reduced to any single (albeit the largest and most radical) discovery. We are usually talking about a whole series of interconnected discoveries (in the main fundamental sciences), which are almost always accompanied by a radical restructuring of the research method, as well as significant changes in the very norms and ideals of scientificity.

21 The subject is the range of questions that philosophy studies. The general structure of the subject of philosophy, philosophical knowledge consists of four main sections:

ontology (the doctrine of being);

epistemology (the doctrine of knowledge);

society.

1) Studies the relationship of thinking and being, matter and consciousness

2) studies movement and development in its most general form, connections and relations of a universal nature, manifested in all areas of matter and consciousness, human thinking

3) studies the laws of the activity of people, social groups and classes, nations and states, she comprehends the goals and means of this activity, the ways of knowing and transforming the world.

How science studies the relationship between consciousness and matter Philosophy is a general theory of the world and man in it. Philosophy and worldview are organically linked with each other. Worldview is a system of views on the objective world and a person's place in it. Philosophy plays a special role in shaping the worldview.
Worldview function contributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of a person in it, the principles of interaction with the outside world.

Methodological function is that philosophy develops the basic methods of cognition of the surrounding reality.

Thinking-theoretical function It is expressed in the fact that philosophy teaches to think conceptually and theorize - to generalize the surrounding reality to the utmost, to create mental-logical schemes, systems of the surrounding world.

Gnoseological - one of the fundamental functions of philosophy is the correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (that is, the mechanism of knowledge).

Role critical function - question the world and existing value, look for their new features, qualities, reveal contradictions. The ultimate goal of this function is to expand the boundaries of knowledge, the destruction of dogmas, the ossification of knowledge, its modernization, and the increase in the reliability of knowledge.

Axiological function philosophy (translated from Greek axios - valuable) is to evaluate things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values - moral, ethical, social, ideological, etc. The purpose of the axiological function is to be a "sieve" through which to pass everything you need , valuable and useful, and discard the inhibitory and obsolete. The axiological function is especially enhanced in critical periods of history (the beginning of the Middle Ages - the search for new (theological) values after the collapse of Rome; the Renaissance; the Reformation; the crisis of capitalism in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, etc.).

social function - explain society, the reasons for its emergence, the evolution of the current state, its structure, elements, driving forces; reveal contradictions, indicate ways to eliminate or mitigate them, improve society.

Educational and humanitarian function philosophy is to cultivate humanistic values and ideals, instill them in a person and society, help strengthen morality, help a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life.

predictive function is to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society on the basis of existing philosophical knowledge about the world and man, the achievements of knowledge

22 space is a form of existence of matter, characterizing its extension, structure, coexistence and interaction of elements in all material systems. The concept of space (extension) makes sense insofar as matter itself is differentiated, structured. If the world did not have a complex structure, if it were not divided into objects, and these objects into interconnected elements, then the concept of space would not make sense. But the material world does not simply consist of structurally dissected objects. These objects are in motion, they are processes, in them it is possible to single out certain qualitative states that replace one another. Comparison of qualitatively different changes gives us an idea of time. Time is a form of being of matter. expressing the duration of the existence of material systems, the sequence of changing states and changes of these systems in the process of development. The concepts of space and time are correlated not only with matter, but also with each other: the concept of space reflects the structural coordination of various objects at the same moment in time, and the concept of time reflects the coordination of the duration of successive objects and their states in one and the same time. same place in space. From the relational concept of space and time follows the idea of a qualitative diversity of space-time structures: the development of matter and the emergence of new forms of its movement must be accompanied by the formation of qualitatively specific forms of space and time.

23Marxism- philosophical, political and economic doctrine and movement founded by Karl Marx in the middle of the 19th century

The main goal of the work is the development and substantiation of the idea of alienation of a person in a society of private property and overcoming this alienation in a communist society. Marx shows that alienated labor turns a person into a mechanism, a person cannot be free and responsible, this is the work of production. This alienation in labor gives rise to other forms in society: political, moral, legal, economic.

Early Marx- in the center of his attention is the problem of alienation and ways to overcome it in the process of revolutionary practice. A society free from alienation Marx calls communism.

Late Marx- in the center of his attention is the discovery of the economic mechanisms ("basis") of world history, over which the spiritual life of society (ideology) is built on. A person is perceived as a product of production activity and as a set of social relations.

24 History and science testify that everything in a person, in his being, is the result of his individual activity, on the one hand, and the activity of previous generations, society as a whole, on the other. Without an active transformation of the surrounding and inner world, a person can neither exist nor develop as a subject of change. In a broad sense, the concept of "activity" means the process of creating the conditions for its existence and development by a social subject, transforming the world around him and himself in accordance with his needs and goals. In philosophical anthropology, the principle of activity is given important methodological significance in the analysis of the social essence of a person, the internal connection between the natural and the social. Here, activity acts as a system-forming force that forms the person himself, the whole way of his life and thoughts.

Man also maintains his biological existence, using physiological forces, methods and functions as the main forms of vital activity. Such, for example, are the physical movements of the body in space, the reproduction of the normal material composition and energy of the organism, mental reactions to internal and external influences, and so on. All these forms of activity are continuous life processes that run in parallel with the ongoing human activity, and are, on the one hand, the conditions of this activity, on the other hand, its constituent parts.

25 Ancient philosophy - Ancient Greece, ancient Rome 7th century BC - 6th century AD

Most of the philosophers of this period considered the Cosmos, created according to the type of a rational, living human body, to be the basis of all things. The cosmos is eternal and absolute, there is nothing but it. It can be heard, seen and touched.

The main problem is the problem of the relationship between the one and the many. The ancient Greeks were able to see many things as one.

1) Miled school: Thales (water), Anaximenes (Air), Anaximander (aperon) Heraclitus (fire)

They tried to find a single and indivisible fundamental principle of the world

2) Eleatic school - Zeno, Parmenides (specific thinking) - From their point of view, much does not exist at all, but one must prove one's time

3) Pythagorean school - One is a number. Significant numbers - 1-point, 2-two ends of the line, 3-triangle, 4-volume

4) Attamistic school - Demacritus, Epicurus, Lucretius - the fundamental principle - everything consists of atoms.

5) the school of the Sophists-Protagoras, Socrates, Plato

Chel-center of culture, its creator, its recognition to know and do good

26 Dialectics (Greek διαλεκτική - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a logical form and method of reflective theoretical thinking, which has as its subject the contradictions of the conceivable content of this thinking.

. The dialectical method of cognition considers the problems of reflection in terms of objective dialectics. Under objective dialectic is understood as the laws and connections of the objective world. content subjective dialectics are concepts, categories expressing the laws and connections of the objective world in subjective shape..

Dialectical methods of cognition are based on the productive active activity of the human brain and differ (from the methods of cognition of sciences) in dialectic, structured, systematic use and transcendental possibilities, determined, first of all, by dialectical technologies and (ascending) transcendental experience.

Dialectical methods of cognition correspond to dialectical cognition.

Dialectical methods of cognition, taking into account a number of dialectical technologies and / or in their transcendental forms or applications, pass into dialectical methods of cognition, which are the highest stage of dialectical methods of cognition, have transcendental capabilities and are correlated with cognition.

27 Solovyov is a prominent representative of the Sofinian philosophy, under Sophia was understood the original divine wisdom, according to which the world was created, therefore, every thing and phenomenon of the sophine. Divine wisdom is the normony itself, which opposes chaos and decay. The teaching of philosophy is called. ALL-UNITY, which deals with the unity of God and humanity. The principle of unity is realized through the concept of integral knowledge: empirical, rational, mystical. For the comprehension of integral knowledge, intuition, a special cognitive ability, is of great importance.

Fedorov was the creator of the theory of the general do. F. reduces to a single idea to the idea of resurrection and immortality. Our ancestors died so that we could live instead of them. In the image of Jesus Christ, the inseparable unity of the yog and man. Chel is as omnipotent as God himself, only because of his disunity in a state of imperfection and evil.

28 Political life is complex and varied. Political subjects are in constant motion, in action and opposition. Political events fill the daily life of countries and affect the interests of millions of people. Political elites are consolidating their position, some elites are being replaced by others, and a younger generation of elites is being formed and is gaining weight. Political relations - the interaction of political subjects with each other and with the authorities.

Political relations play the same important role in society as economic, social, and spiritual relations.

Allocate the following types political relations:

Relations of cooperation, interaction and political unity (consensus);

Relations of subordination to domination and exploitation. With this type of relationship, disagreements, contradictions, conflicts and even wars are possible. The confrontation is due to the intransigence between the subjects of the political process, especially in the field of political ideology.

Political relations are also horizontal and vertical. M. Weber considered horizontally organized and vertically organized political relations as "ideal types" of relations.

State- this is a special political organization of society, which extends its power over the entire territory of the country and its population, has a special administrative apparatus for this, issues decrees binding on all and has sovereignty

Society- 1) in the broadest sense of the word, this is a combination of all types of interaction and forms of association of people that have developed historically; 2) in a narrow sense - a historically specific type social system a particular form of social relationship. [

29 Worldview is a set of views and beliefs, assessments and norms, ideals and attitudes that determine a person's attitude to the world and, being guidelines in his daily life, perform a regulatory function.

Structure:

Theoretical level: (science and philosophy) - knowledge - belief, belief

Life-practical level: skills, customs, traditions, practical experience.) - values and norms - practical activities.

Myth is the most ancient form of social consciousness. It arose as answers to questions about the origin of the world and its structure. Type of consciousness, a way of understanding the world, characteristic of early stages development of the world.Fantastic reflection. The function is to explain the world order and regulate the existing social relations. Religion covers a system of dogmas, illusory feelings, ritual actions and church institutions designed to satisfy the needs of people in faith, hope and love. The belief in the supernatural is the basis of the religious worldview.

Philosophy is a form of social consciousness associated with the comprehension of the essence of social and natural being, the world as a whole, the place of people in this world, the relationship of man to the world and the meaning of human life.

Philosophy features:

The starting point and goal of philosophy is man, his place in the world and his relationship to this world.

Studying World Development

Means of knowledge I am-mind

Empirical knowledge base

30 Matter (material existence)

Matter is an objective reality that exists independently of human consciousness and is displayed by it.

Stage 1 - fire, water, air

2nd stage atoms - Democritus.

3rd stage objective reality (Lenin)

4 stage attributes

Matter reflects the ultimate general properties of the objective world. Matter is the only existing substance. It is eternal and infinite.

1. Material existence and basic approaches to the concept of "matter".

In philosophy, there are several approaches to the concept (category) "matter":

a materialistic approach, according to which matter is the basis of being, and all other forms of existence - the spirit, man, society - are the product of matter; according to the materialists, matter is primary and represents the existence;

objective-idealistic approach - matter objectively exists as a product (objectivization) regardless of all existing primary ideal) spirit;

subjective-idealistic approach - matter as an independent reality does not exist at all, it is only a product (phenomenon - an apparent phenomenon, "hallucination") of the subjective (existing only in the form of human consciousness) spirit;

positivist - the concept of "matter" is false, since it cannot be proved and fully studied with the help of experimental scientific research.

In modern Russian science and philosophy (as well as in Soviet philosophy), a materialistic approach to the problem of being and matter has been established, according to which matter is an objective reality and the basis of being, the root cause, and all other forms of being - spirit, man, society - are manifestations of matter and are derived from her.

2. The structure of matter: its elements and levels.

The elements of the structure of matter are:

inanimate nature;

Live nature;

society (society).

3. Characteristic features (properties) of matter.

The characteristic features of matter are:

the presence of movement;

self-organization;

placement in space and time;

reflective ability.

I. Kant's theory of knowledge.

I. Kant (1724-1804). Kant's main philosophical work is the Critique of Pure Reason (the critical period of his work). The original problem for Kant is the question "How is pure knowledge possible?" (pure - "non-empirical", that is, one to which sensation is not mixed). Kant was an agnostic, he believed that we can know what we ourselves concentrated, from what we have experience, from what we have no experience, we cannot know. He developed the doctrine of antinomy (contradictory mutually exclusive provisions)

Kant calls his philosophy “critical” (as opposed to dogmatic, which leaves the question of the possibility of knowledge unresolved. Our consciousness does not just passively comprehend the world as it really is (dogmatism), but, on the contrary, the world conforms to the possibilities of our knowledge, namely: consciousness is an active participant the formation of the world itself, given to us in experience. Chel considers Kant a resident of two worlds 1) the world of nature (the concrete-sensory world) 2) the world of freedom (the intelligible world) - practical reason operates. It directs the actions of people, the driving force is the will

Intuition and its role in cognition.

Intuition- the ability to feel the already existing logical chains of related information regarding the desired issue, and thus instantly find the answer to any question.

Intuition- the ability to mentally assess the situation and, bypassing reasoning and logical analysis, instantly make the right decisions. An intuitive solution can arise both as a result of intense reflection on the solution of the issue, and without it. This is an instant insight, an instant pressure of knowledge and insight, which offers us unambiguous solutions. And, strange as it may seem, even without knowing where the decision came from, we believe in it, relying on our inner feelings of Truth.

In obtaining new knowledge, logical thinking, methods and techniques for the formation of concepts, and the laws of logic play an important role. But the experience of cognitive activity shows that ordinary logic in many cases is insufficient for solving scientific problems; the process of producing new information cannot be reduced to either inductively or deductively unfolded thinking. An important place in this process is occupied by intuition, which gives cognition a new impulse and direction of movement.

Intuition, as a specific cognitive process that directly produces new knowledge, is just as universal, inherent in all people (albeit to varying degrees) ability, like feelings and abstract thinking.

intuition lends itself experimental study. Of the works devoted to the study of intuition through experiment, one can single out the works of Ya. A. Ponomarev, (Elton, K-Fakuoara.

The prevalence, universality of intuition is confirmed by numerous observations of people in ordinary, everyday conditions; there are frequent cases when in a non-standard situation that requires a quick decision in conditions of limited information, the subject makes a choice of his actions, as if "foreseeing" that it is necessary to do just that, and nothing else.

Human culture knows many cases when a scientist, designer, artist or musician achieved something fundamentally new in their field, as it were, by way of "insight", "on a hunch".

In the history of music, cases are not uncommon when a musical thought came to a composer at the most unexpected moment, say, in a dream.

The greatest achievements of theoretical science are also connected with the action of intuition.

An interesting view of A. Einstein on the work of a theoretical physicist and his judgments about his own work

Of no small importance is intuition in the sphere of philosophical knowledge. Intuition is associated with the idea of Aristotle's syllogisms, the idea of combining philosophy and mathematics by R. Descartes, the idea of antinomies by I. Kant, and many others.

The phenomenon of intuition is extremely wide, not always everything that is considered intuitive really deserves such a name. In thinking, for example, inferences are not uncommon, the premises of which are not formulated explicitly; the result of such inferences is unexpected, but not at all intuitive, as some scientists believe. It is not necessary to take for intuition that which belongs to the realm of instincts, is characterized by automatic reactions in a similar environment and has physiological mechanisms in the subconscious or unconscious sphere of the subject. Sometimes one speaks of "sensory intuition" as perception by the senses ("intuitive" premises of Euclid's geometry, etc.). Although such usage is possible, it is identical to "sensory-sensitive". As a specific phenomenon of cognition, the concept of intuition has many meanings.

We understand by intuition intellectual intuition (lat. intellectus - the mind, the thinking ability of a person), which allows one to penetrate into the essence of things.

And another extremely important feature is characteristic of intuition - its immediacy. It is customary to call direct knowledge (as opposed to indirect) such that is not based on logical proof. Intuition is direct knowledge only in the sense that at the moment a new position is put forward, it does not follow with logical necessity from existing sensory experience and theoretical constructions. If we keep in mind that intuition refers to the intellect and is associated with a reflection of the essence of objects (i.e., if we distinguish it from sensory-sensitive and instinctive), then we can take as its initial definition:

intuition is the ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without substantiation with the help of evidence.

two traits inherent in intuition: suddenness and unconsciousness. Intuitive "vision" is made not only accidentally and suddenly, but also without obvious awareness of the ways and means leading to this result.

Sometimes the result remains unconscious, and intuition itself, with such an outcome of its action, is destined for only the fate of a possibility that has not become reality. The individual may not retain (or have) any recollection of the experienced act of intuition at all. One remarkable observation was made by the American mathematician Leonard Eugene Dixon. His mother and her sister, who were rivals in geometry at school, spent a long and fruitless evening solving a problem. At night, the mother dreamed of this problem: and she began to solve it aloud in a loud and clear voice; her sister, hearing this, got up and wrote it down. The next morning, she had the right decision in her hands, unknown to Dixon's mother. This example illustrates, among other things, the unconscious nature of the phenomenon called "mathematical dreams" and the operation at the unconscious level of the human psyche.

By the nature of novelty, intuition is standardized and heuristic. The first of these is called intuition-reduction. An example is the medical intuition of S. P. Botkin. It is known that while the patient was walking from the door to the chair (the length of the cabinet was 7 meters), S.P. Botkin mentally made a preliminary diagnosis. Most of his intuitive diagnoses turned out to be correct.

Heuristic (creative) intuition differs significantly from standardized intuition: it is associated with the formation of a fundamentally new knowledge, new epistemological images, sensual or conceptual. The same S. P. Botkin, speaking as a clinical scientist and developing the theory of medicine, more than once relied on such intuition in his scientific activities. She helped him, for example, in putting forward a hypothesis about the infectious nature of catarrhal jaundice ("Botkin's disease").

The heuristic intuition itself has its subspecies. For us, this division is important on an epistemological basis, i.e. by the nature of the result. Of interest is the point of view according to which the essence of creative intuition lies in a kind of interaction of visual images and abstract concepts, and heuristic intuition itself appears in two forms: eidetic and conceptual. Let's consider this question in more detail.

In principle, the following ways of forming .. sensual times and concepts in human consciousness: 1) sensory-perceptual process, as a result of which sensory images appear; 2) sensory-associative process of transition from one image to another; 3) the process of transition from sensory images to concepts; 4) the process of transition from concepts to sensory images; 5) pro logical mind process conclusion, in which the transition from one concept to another is made.

It is obvious that the first, second and fifth directions of creating epistemological images are not intuitive. Even if we take an "automated", folded inference (within the framework of the fifth direction), then it will turn out to be nothing essentially different from a complete, expanded inference; here there will be no special way of forming knowledge, as in the first two cases. Therefore, the assumption arises that the formation of intuitive knowledge is associated with processes of the third and fourth types, that is, with the transition from sensory images to concepts and from concepts to sensory images. The legitimacy of such an assumption is confirmed by the fact that the nature of these processes is in good agreement with the most typical features of the intuitive "perception of truth" recorded in the phenomenological descriptions of intuition: in them, the transformation of the sensory-visual into the abstract-conceptual and vice versa takes place. Between visual images and concepts there are no intermediate steps different from them; even the most elementary concepts differ from sensory representations. Here arise concepts that are not logically deducible from other concepts, and images that are not generated by other images according to the laws of sensory association, and therefore it is natural that the results obtained seem "directly perceived." This also explains the spasmodic nature of this transformation and the process of obtaining the result.

Examples of eidetic intuition are Kekule's visual representation of the structure of the benzene molecule, or Rutherford's visual representation of the structure of the atom. These representations are not reduced to a simple reproduction of the data of direct sensory experience and are formed with the help of concepts. Examples of conceptual intuition are the emergence of the concept of quaternions in Hamilton or the concept of neutrinos in Pauli. These concepts did not arise through consistent logical reasoning (although this process preceded the discovery), but in leaps and bounds; of great importance in their formation was the combination of the corresponding sensory images ("combinatorial game" with figurative elements of thinking, in the words of A. Einstein).

From the standpoint of such an understanding of creative intuition and its varieties, its definition is also given. Creative intuition is defined as a specific cognitive process that consists in the interaction of sensory images and abstract concepts and leads to the creation of fundamentally new images and concepts, the content of which is not derived by a simple synthesis of previous perceptions or by only logical operation of existing concepts. The practical nature of man and cognition determines, in our opinion, the creative intuition of a scientist and its division into eidetic and conceptual. We agree that it is in the processes of transition from sensory images to concepts and from concepts to sensory images that one should look for a clue to the mysterious nature of intuitive knowledge.

The future will show how true this idea of the epistemological mechanism of intuition is.

The speed with which intuition operates is mysterious. In the section on the abstract mental ability of a person, we have already paid attention to the existence of non-verbalized thinking and to a significant acceleration of the thought process in this form. An amazing phenomenon is observed: the possibility of processing 10 bits of information per second at the unconscious level, and only 10 at the conscious level. All this is an important prerequisite for the deployment of fast thought processes, for operating with a huge amount of "pure" information in the subconscious (unconscious) sphere. The subconscious mind is able to carry out a huge amount of work in a short time, which is beyond the power of consciousness in the same short period of time.

The general conditions for the formation and manifestation of intuition include the following. 1) a thorough professional training of a person, a deep knowledge of the problem", 2) a search situation, a state of problematicity; 3) the action of a search dominant on the basis of continuous attempts to solve a problem, strenuous efforts to solve a problem or task; 4) the presence of a "hint".

The role of the "hint" is clearly seen from the following experiment. The conditions of creative activity were simulated. A large number of adults (600 people) were asked to solve a problem called "Four points". Her wording:

"Given four points; it is required to draw three straight lines through these four points, without lifting the pencil from the paper, so that the pencil returns to the starting point." The subjects were selected from among those who did not know the principle of solving the problem. The solution time was limited to 10 minutes. All subjects, without exception, after a series of unsuccessful attempts, stopped solving and recognized the problem as unsolvable. To achieve success, it was necessary to “break out” of the area of the plane bounded by points, but this did not occur to anyone - everyone remained inside this area. Then the subjects were offered a "hint". They learned the rules of the game of khalma. According to the rules of this game, they must jump over three black pieces in one move of the white piece so that the white piece returns to its original place. While performing this action, the subjects traced with their hands a route that coincided with the scheme for solving the problem, i.e., corresponding to the graphical expression for solving this problem (the subjects were also given other prompts). If such a hint was given before the presentation of the problem, then success was minimal; if, after the subject got into a problem situation and became convinced of the futility of the attempts to solve it, the problem was solved.

This simple experiment suggests that the intrinsic difficulty of the problem arises because its conditions directly reproduce, in the subject's past experience, extremely hardened empirically generalized techniques - the union of points by the shortest distance. The subjects, as it were, are locked in a section of the area, limited by four points, while it is necessary to leave this section. From experience it follows that favorable circumstances develop when the subject, fruitlessly searching for a solution to the problem, exhausts the wrong methods, but has not yet reached the stage at which the search dominant goes out, i.e. when the subject loses interest in the problem, when attempts that have already been made and failed are repeated, when the situation of the problem ceases to change and the subject recognizes the problem as unsolvable. Hence the conclusion that the success of an intuitive solution depends on how much the researcher managed to get rid of the pattern, to be convinced of the unsuitability of previously known paths and at the same time to remain passionate about the problem, not to recognize it as unsolvable. The hint turns out to be decisive in freeing oneself from standard, stereotyped trains of thought. The specific form of the hint, those specific objects and phenomena that are used in this case, are an unimportant circumstance. Its general meaning is important. The idea of a hint should be embodied in some specific phenomena, but which ones exactly - this will not be a decisive factor.

The researchers note that the intuitive ability was formed, apparently, as a result of the long development of living organisms due to the need to make decisions with incomplete information about events, and the ability to intuitively know can be regarded as a probabilistic response to probabilistic environmental conditions. From this point of view, since the scientist is not given all the prerequisites and means to make a discovery, insofar as he makes a probabilistic choice.

The probabilistic nature of intuition means for a person both the possibility of obtaining true knowledge and the danger of having erroneous, untrue knowledge. The English physicist M. Faraday, known for his work in the field of electricity, magnetism and electrochemistry, wrote that no one suspects how many conjectures and theories that arise in the head of a researcher are destroyed by his own criticism and hardly one tenth of all his assumptions and hopes come true. . The conjecture that has arisen in the head of a scientist or designer must be verified. Testing the same hypothesis, as we know, is carried out in the practice of scientific research. "Intuition is enough to discern the truth, but it is not enough to convince others and oneself of this truth. For this, proof is necessary."

The proof (in a broad sense) includes an appeal to the sensory perceptions of some physical objects and phenomena, as well as logical reasoning, arguments. In deductive sciences (logic, mathematics, in some sections of theoretical physics), proofs are chains of inferences leading from true premises to provable theses. Without logical reasoning based on the law of sufficient reason, it is impossible to come to the establishment of the truth of the put forward position.

The question is, what does the process of movement of knowledge look like: discontinuous or continuous? If we take the development of science as a whole, it is obvious that in this general flow of discontinuities, denoted at the individual level by intuitive jumps, do not make themselves felt; here their leaps, called revolutions in science. But for individual scientists, the process of the development of knowledge in their field of scientific research appears differently: knowledge develops spasmodically, intermittently, with "logical vacuums", but, on the other hand, it develops without leaps, since the logical thought that follows each "insight" methodically and purposefully fills the "logical vacuum". From the point of view of the individual, the development of knowledge is the unity of discontinuity and continuity, the unity of gradualness and leap. In this aspect, creativity acts as a unity of the rational and the irrational. Creativity "is not the opposite of rationality, but is its natural and necessary addition. One simply could not exist without the other. Creativity is therefore not irrational, that is, not hostile to rationality, not anti-rational, as many thinkers of the past thought ... On the contrary, creativity , flowing subconsciously or unconsciously, not obeying certain rules and standards, ultimately at the level of results can be consolidated with rational activity, included in it, can become its integral part or in some cases lead to the creation of new types of rational activity"

In the history of philosophy the problem of intuition received great attention. Neither Plato nor Aristotle could imagine creativity without it. The difference between them was only in the interpretation of intuition. Philosophers of modern times, who developed methods of rational knowledge of nature, also could not fail to note the importance of intuition. R. Descartes, for example, believed that rational knowledge, having passed through the "purgatory" of methodological doubt, is associated with intuition, which gives the first principles, from which all other knowledge is then deduced by deduction. “Propositions that directly follow from the first principle can be said to be known,” he wrote, “both intuitively and deductively, depending on the way they are considered, while the principles themselves are only intuitive, as well as, on the contrary, their individual consequences - only deductively.

A. Bergson attached great importance to the problem of intuition. In particular, he drew attention to philosophical intuition, devoting a special work to it (published in Russian in 1911). He connected intuition with instinct, with knowledge of the living, changeable, with synthesis, and logical - with intellect, with analysis. In his opinion, logic triumphs in science, which has as its subject solid bodies. Associating intuition with the acquisition of new knowledge in the form of sensory and conceptual images, he made a number of subtle observations; at the same time, one can notice in him his unnecessarily rigid opposition of intuition to logic.

One should neither overestimate intuition nor ignore its role in cognition. Discursive and intuitive are specific and complementary means of cognition.

In the process of cognition, along with rational operations and procedures, non-equal ones also participate. This does not mean that they are incompatible with rationality, i.e., irrational. What is the specificity of irrational mechanisms of cognition? Why are they needed, what role do they play in the process of cognition? To answer these questions, we need to find out what intuition and creativity are.

IN real life people face rapidly changing situations. Therefore, along with decisions based on generally accepted norms of behavior, they have to make non-standard decisions. This process is usually called creativity.

Plato considered creativity to be a divine faculty akin to a special kind of madness. Christian tradition interpreted creativity as the highest manifestation of the divine in man. Kant saw creativity as a distinctive feature of genius and contrasted creative activity with rational activity. From the point of view of Kant, rational activity, for example, scientific, is the destiny of best case talent, but genuine creativity, accessible to great prophets, philosophers or artists, is always the lot of a genius. Philosophers-existentialists attached great importance to creativity as a special personal characteristic. Representatives of depth psychology 3. Freud, C. G. Jung, German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, author of the book "People of Brilliance", referring creativity entirely to the sphere of the unconscious, exaggerated its uniqueness and irreproducibility and, in essence, recognized its incompatibility with rational knowledge.

The mechanisms of creativity are still not well understood. Nevertheless, it can be said with certainty that creativity is a product of human biosocial evolution. Already in the behavior of higher animals, acts of creativity are observed, albeit in an elementary form. Rats, after numerous attempts, found a way out of an extremely confusing maze. Chimpanzees who learned the language of the deaf and dumb learned not only several hundred words and grammatical forms, but also sometimes constructed separate, completely new sentences, meeting with a non-standard situation, information about which they wanted to convey to a person. Obviously, the possibility for creativity lies not just in the biophysical and neurophysiological structures of the brain, but in its “functional architectonics”. It is a special system of organized and interconnected operations carried out by different parts of the brain. With their help, sensory images and abstractions are created, symbolic information is processed, information is stored in the memory system, links are established between individual elements and a memory block, stored information is recalled from memory, various images and abstract knowledge are grouped and regrouped (combined), etc. Since in its biological and neurophysiological structure the human brain is qualitatively more complex than the brain of all higher animals, its “functional architectonics” is also qualitatively more complex. This provides an extraordinary, almost incalculable possibility of processing new information. Memory plays a special role here, that is, the storage of previously received information. It includes RAM, constantly used in cognitive and subject-practical activities, short-term memory, which for short intervals of time can be used to solve frequently repeated tasks of the same type; long-term memory, which stores information that may be needed over long periods of time to solve relatively infrequent problems.

What is the relationship between rational and creative processes in cognitive and practical activities? The activity of people is expedient. To achieve a certain goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks and subtasks. Some of them can be solved using typical rational methods. To solve others, the creation or invention of non-standard, new rules and techniques is required. This happens when we are faced with fundamentally new situations that do not have exact analogues in the past. This is where creativity is needed. It is a mechanism for human adaptation in an infinitely diverse and changing world, a mechanism that ensures its survival and development. At the same time, we are talking not only about the external, objective, but also about the internal, subjective world of a person, the infinite variety of his experiences, mental states, moods, emotions, fantasies, volitional acts, etc. This side of the matter cannot be covered by rationality, which includes a gigantic, but still a finite number of rules, norms, standards and standards. Therefore, creativity is not the opposite of rationality, but is its natural and necessary addition. One without the other simply could not exist. Creativity is therefore not irrational, that is, not hostile to rationality, not anti-rational, as many thinkers of the past thought, it is not from God, as Plato thought, and not from the devil, as many medieval theologians and philosophers believed. On the contrary, creativity, proceeding subconsciously or unconsciously, not obeying certain rules and standards, ultimately at the level of results can be consolidated with rational activity, included in it, can become its integral part or, in some cases, lead to the creation of new types of rational activity. This applies to both individual and collective creativity. Thus, the artistic creativity of Michelangelo, Shostakovich, the scientific creativity of Galileo, Copernicus, Lobachevsky became an integral part of culture and science, although in its immediate original form it did not correspond to established patterns, standards and standards.

Any person in one way or another has creative abilities, i.e., the ability to develop new methods of activity, acquire new knowledge, formulate problems, and understand the unknown. Each child, learning a new world around him, mastering the language, norms and culture, in essence, is engaged in creativity. But, from the point of view of adults, he masters what is already known, learns what is already open, proven. Therefore, what is new for the individual is not always new for society. Genuine creativity in culture, politics, science and production is determined by the fundamental novelty of the results obtained on the scale of their historical significance.

What forms the mechanism of creativity, its spring, its distinctive features? The most important of these mechanisms is intuition. Ancient thinkers, such as Democritus and especially Plato, considered it as inner vision, a special higher ability of the mind. Unlike ordinary sensory vision, which provides information about transient phenomena that are not of great value, speculation, according to Plato, allows one to rise to the comprehension of immutable and eternal ideas that exist outside and independently of a person. Descartes believed that intuition allows us to clearly see the ideas contained in our soul. But how exactly intuition is "arranged", none of them explained. Despite the fact that subsequent generations of European philosophers interpreted intuition in different ways (Feuerbach, for example, believed that it is rooted not in the perception of higher ideas, but in the very sensibility of a person), we still have made very little progress in understanding its nature and mechanisms. That is why intuition and the creativity associated with it cannot be described in any complete and satisfactory form by a system of rules. However, modern psychology of creativity and neurophysiology allow us to state with confidence that intuition includes a number of specific stages. These include: 1) accumulation and unconscious distribution of images and abstractions in the memory system; 2) unconscious combination and processing of accumulated abstractions, images and rules in order to solve a specific problem; 3) a clear understanding of the task; 4) finding a solution unexpected for a given person (proving a theorem, creating an artistic image, finding a design or military solution, etc.) that satisfies the formulated task. Often such a decision comes at the most unexpected time, when the conscious activity of the brain is focused on solving other problems, or even in a dream. It is known that the famous French mathematician J. A. Poincare found an important mathematical proof while walking along the lake, and Pushkin came up with the poetic line he needed in a dream.

However, there is nothing mysterious in creative activity, and it is subject to scientific study. This activity is carried out by the brain, but it is not identical to the set of operations performed by it. Scientists have discovered the so-called right-left asymmetry of the brain. It has been experimentally proved that in higher mammals the right and left hemispheres of the brain perform different functions. The right mainly processes and stores information leading to the creation of sensory images, while the left carries out abstraction, develops concepts, judgments, gives meaning and meaning to information, develops and stores rational, including logical, rules. The holistic process of cognition is carried out as a result of the interaction of operations and knowledge performed by these hemispheres. If, as a result of illness, injury, or surgery, the connection between them is broken, then the process of cognition becomes incomplete, ineffective, or even impossible. However, right-left asymmetry arises not on a neurophysiological basis, but on a socio-psychological basis in the process of education and training. It is also connected with the nature of subject-practical activity. In children, it is clearly fixed only at the age of four or five years, and in left-handers, the functions of the hemispheres are distributed in the opposite way: the left hemisphere performs the functions of sensory, and the right - of abstract rational cognition.

In the process of creativity and intuition, complex functional transitions take place, in which, at some stage, the disparate activity of operating with abstract and sensory knowledge, respectively, carried out by the left and right hemispheres, suddenly unites, leading to the desired result, to insight, to some kind of creative ignition, which is perceived as a discovery, as a highlight of what was previously in the darkness of unconscious activity.

Now we can turn to the most important cognitive procedures of explanation and understanding.

They are usually viewed as overlapping or overlapping processes. However, the analysis of human cognition, intensively carried out in the second half of the 19th and throughout the 20th century, revealed significant differences between them. Neo-Kantians W. Windelband, G. Rickert and others argued that the knowledge of nature is fundamentally different from the knowledge of society and man. The phenomena of nature, they believed, are subject to objective laws, while the phenomena of social life and culture depend on the completely individual characteristics of people and unique historical situations. Therefore, the knowledge of nature is generalizing, or generalizing, and the knowledge of social phenomena is individualizing. Accordingly, for natural science, the main task is to bring individual facts under general laws, and for social cognition, the main thing is to comprehend the internal attitudes, motives of activity and hidden meanings that determine people's actions. Based on this, V. Dilthey argued that the main method of cognition in the natural sciences is explanation, and in the sciences of culture and man - understanding. Is this true? In fact, there are both right and wrong points in this approach. It is true that modern natural science seeks, first of all, to establish the laws of phenomena and subsume individual empirical knowledge under them. It is not true that the social sciences do not reflect objective laws and do not use them to explain socio-historical phenomena and the activities of individuals. It is true that understanding the views, opinions, beliefs, beliefs, and goals of others is an extremely difficult task, especially since many people misunderstand or misunderstand themselves, and sometimes deliberately seek to mislead. It is not true that understanding is not applicable to the phenomena of nature. Everyone who has studied the natural or technical sciences has repeatedly seen how difficult and how important it is to understand this or that phenomenon, law, or the result of an experiment. Therefore, explanation and understanding are two complementary cognitive processes used in natural science, social, and technical knowledge.

The theory of knowledge distinguishes: structural explanations that answer the question of how an object is arranged, for example, what is the composition and relationship of elementary particles in an atom; functional explanations that answer the question of how an object operates and functions, for example, an animal, an individual person, or a certain production team; causal explanations that answer the question why a given phenomenon arose, why exactly a given set of factors led to such and such a consequence, etc. At the same time, in the process of explanation, we use existing knowledge to explain others. The transition from more general knowledge to more specific and empirical and constitutes the procedure of explanation. Moreover, the same phenomenon can sometimes be explained in different ways, depending on what laws, concepts and theoretical views are the basis of the explanation. Thus, the rotation of the planets around the Sun can be explained - based on classical celestial mechanics - by the action of attractive forces. Based on the general theory of relativity - the curvature of the circumsolar space in its gravitational field. Which of these explanations is more correct, physics decides. The philosophical task is to study the structure of explanation and the conditions under which it provides correct knowledge of the phenomena being explained. This brings us close to the question of the truth of knowledge. Knowledge that serves as the basis for an explanation is called explanatory. The knowledge that they substantiate is called explicable. Not only laws, but also individual facts can act as an explainer. For example, the fact of a nuclear reactor catastrophe can explain the fact of an increase in the radioactivity of the atmosphere over the nearby territory. Not only facts, but also laws of lesser generality can act as an explainable. Thus, the Ohm's law known from the course of elementary physics can be explained either on the basis of the so-called Lorentz-Drude electron gas model, or on the basis of even more fundamental laws of quantum physics.

What gives us the process of explanation? First, it establishes deeper and stronger links between different systems of knowledge, which allows them to include new knowledge about the laws and individual natural phenomena. Secondly, it allows foreseeing and predicting future situations and processes, since the logical structure of explanation and foresight is generally similar. The difference is that explanation refers to facts, events, processes, or patterns that exist or have taken place in the past, while prediction refers to what should happen in the future. Prediction and foresight are a necessary basis for planning and designing social, production and practical activities. The more correct, deeper and more reasonable our prediction of possible events, the more effective our actions can be.

What is the difference between understanding and explanation? It is often said that in order to understand a phenomenon, this phenomenon must be explained. But that

In addition to scientific, other types of rationality (philosophical, religious, artistic) can be distinguished, corresponding to other types of knowledge. The identification of rationality with scientificity, and scientificity, in turn, with strict logical procedures leads to a contradictory understanding of science itself. It is a mistake to reduce rationality to the automatic following of logical rules. Logic is one of the variants of rational normativity. The norms of rationality are divided into three large groups:

Epistemic: logical laws and rules, principles of scientific ontology.

Activity: expediency, efficiency, optimality, economy, etc.;

Moral: accepted in a given society ideas about goodness, beauty, etc.

Thus, not just substantive, but non-rational factors act as prerequisites for rationality: historical ideals, worldview principles, etc. However, the absence of a single logical criterion of rationality, the diversity and historical variability of the types of rationality do not mean the absence of rationality itself as a special type of comprehension of the world and attitude towards it. The possibility of dogmatization is inherent in the very nature of rational consciousness. The fact is that rational consciousness creates a theoretical world - a world of ideal constructions, which can be alienated from a person. Based on this, it is customary to distinguish between open and closed rationality, which corresponds to the traditional distinction between reason and reason. According to Kant, reason is the ability of a subject to make judgments and act within the framework of given rules. Reason is the ability of the subject to create the rules and principles of knowledge. Reason sets goals for reason and represents the highest creative ability of man. According to I. Kant, one cannot judge the world with the help of reason alone, it is powerless in the sphere of freedom, although it is quite adequate in the world of necessity. Driven by the ideas of the mind, the mind tends to go beyond the limits of possible experience and falls into illusions. In order to judge things-in-themselves, the possibilities of reason are not enough.

Reason is a kind of "spiritual automaton", which tends to simplify and schematize. The positive functions of the mind are the classification, systematization of knowledge and, with the help of this, the adaptation of a person to familiar situations. The mind, correlated with open rationality, is anti-dogmatic in nature, it is a creative, constructive thought, reflection on the given rules, the formation of new rules and norms. The mind from this point of view goes beyond the limits of available experience, its function is the generation of new knowledge.

With this understanding, philosophy is comparable to open rationality, understood as reflexivity. Open rationality presupposes self-criticism and pluralism, equality of different positions both within philosophy and in other spheres of culture. There are also classical, non-classical and post-non-classical forms of rationality. Classical rationality is associated with such methods of comprehension of reality, in which the subject is completely excluded from the system of cognition. Non-classical rationality is characterized by the awareness of the irremovable influence of cognitive means on the object and process of research. Post-non-classical rationality is associated with the realization of the inextricable connection between the value-semantic structures of the consciousness of the cognizing subject and the nature of his cognitive activity.

In addition to highlighting various types of scientific rationality, modern philosophy also speaks of its non-scientific forms. Creative intelligence refers to the ability to freely practical action, to the generation of something new in everyday life, art, science and philosophy. Classical scientific rationality is only one of the possibilities for the realization of reason. Postclassical philosophy has demonstrated that reason rests on non-reason, logic on non-logic, that reason is only a means of the existence of philosophy, but not its only goal.

has nothing to do with the laws of logic. Logical thinking is based on collecting information, analyzing facts, establishing a causal relationship between them and formulating conclusions. Intuition, on the other hand, suggests a ready-made answer, appearing as if "it is not known where."

"The first thought is the most correct." This position has long become an indisputable folk wisdom that has become part of sayings and proverbs. This “best first thought” is actually a glimmer of intuition pointing in the right direction.

What the people have long ago learned empirically and adopted, as they say, into service, has recently begun to be confirmed by scientific experiments.

It has been established that people with developed intuition are able to quickly navigate in the most difficult situations and instantly make error-free decisions.

In some experiments, groups of subjects were asked to perform a variety of tasks - with numbers, words, pictures - each of which contained some kind of gap in information. The subjects had to "restore" this gap. The results showed that those who followed the "logical" path invariably failed. Some tried to solve the task by "poke method", at random. And only a few came to the correct result with the help of intuition!

Scientists associate intuitive thinking with the work of the right hemisphere of the brain. This should indicate that left-handed people (the right hemisphere of the brain "manages" the left side of the body, and vice versa) should have better developed intuition. And indeed! In numerous tests of intuition, left-handers always perform better than the “right-handed” majority.

Until recently, "left-handedness" was considered a defect that they tried to correct with the help of medicine, and children - young left-handers - were seriously "educated" in "right-handed" traditions: parents were worried that they were growing "defective" children.

Meanwhile, the great Leonardo da Vinci was left-handed, and this did not stop him from writing La Gioconda.

We, however, live in a “right-handed” civilization. All the objects around us are adapted to the right hand. The system of education and upbringing is designed from childhood to develop the left half of the brain in us - that is, logic, rational thinking.

“Only without speculation, please rely on data” - this dry phrase, a kind of slogan of a “right-handed” civilization, sounds like a refrain throughout life. And intuitive thinking is relegated to the backyard of consciousness...

Why did it happen? After all, human nature contains both rational and spiritual principles. And the method of spiritual knowledge, which all religions of the world call for development, is called intuition, and rational thinking is pure materialism, a way of existence in "this world." Nobody denies its necessity. But still, "My kingdom is not of this world..." Do you remember whose words these are?

Intuition and its role in cognition, is immeasurably higher than logic, higher than rational thinking. But, alas, the centuries-old work to expel the spiritual principle from the life of mankind has led to the fact that rationalism has prevailed in the public consciousness and has become the only official method of cognition. Since that time, human civilization has reached the dead end in which it remains to this day.

The problems of rationalistic civilization are so blatant, and the discord in the minds caused by them, is so great that many seriously believe that the only way out of this impasse will be the notorious "end of the world."

These fears are easily explained: it is clear that one-sided, "right-sided" development is not harmonious and in the end leads to distortion in everything - in minds, in souls, in hearts, in mass behavior, in worldview.

The third millennium, obviously, will greatly complicate the tasks facing humanity, and will require the involvement of new forces to solve them. It is clear that with rationalism elevated to a cult, these tasks cannot be solved. Fortunately, there has recently been recognition of the fact that further development humanity is impossible without the harmonious development of all the creative possibilities inherent in man.

Judge for yourself: after all, a person is a surprisingly symmetrical creature. Is it normal when only its right half actually participates in active creation?

7.Creativity - the process of activity that creates qualitatively new material and spiritual values or the result of creating an objectively new one. Creativity is aimed at solving problems or satisfying needs. The main criterion that distinguishes creativity from manufacturing (production) is the uniqueness of its result. The result of creativity cannot be directly deduced from the initial conditions. No one, except perhaps the author, can get exactly the same result if the same initial situation is created for him. Thus, in the process of creativity, the author puts into the material, in addition to labor, some possibilities that are not reducible to labor operations or a logical conclusion, and in the end expresses some aspects of his personality. It is this fact that gives the products of creativity an additional value in comparison with the products of production.

Creativity is:

activity that generates something qualitatively new, which has never existed before;

creation of something new, valuable not only for one person, but also for others;

The process of creating subjective values.

Talent - certain or outstanding abilities that open up with the acquisition of experience, forming a skill.

Genius- ambiguous term:

Genius - in Roman mythology, guardian spirits devoted to people, objects and places, in charge of the birth of their "wards", and determining the character of a person or the atmosphere of the area.

· The genius of the place is the patron spirit of a particular place (village, mountain, individual tree).

· A genius is a person with extremely outstanding abilities.

Intuition(late lat. intuitio- "contemplation", from the verb intueor- staring intently) - direct comprehension of the truth without logical analysis, based on imagination, empathy and previous experience, "flair", insight.

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