42 in the periodic table. General characteristics of chemical elements
If the periodic table seems difficult for you to understand, you are not alone! Although it can be difficult to understand its principles, knowing how to work with it will help in learning natural sciences. To get started, study the structure of the table and what information can be learned from it about each chemical element. Then you can start exploring the properties of each element. And finally, using the periodic table, you can determine the number of neutrons in an atom of a particular chemical element.
Steps
Part 1
Table structure- For example, the first row of the table contains hydrogen, which has atomic number 1, and helium, which has atomic number 2. However, they are on opposite ends because they belong to different groups.
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Learn about groups that include elements with similar physical and chemical properties. The elements of each group are located in the corresponding vertical column. As a rule, they are indicated by the same color, which helps to identify elements with similar physical and chemical properties and predict their behavior. All elements of a particular group have the same number of electrons in the outer shell.
- Hydrogen can be attributed both to the group of alkali metals and to the group of halogens. In some tables it is indicated in both groups.
- In most cases, the groups are numbered from 1 to 18, and the numbers are placed at the top or bottom of the table. Numbers can be given in Roman (eg IA) or Arabic (eg 1A or 1) numerals.
- When moving along the column from top to bottom, they say that you are "browsing the group".
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Find out why there are empty cells in the table. Elements are ordered not only according to their atomic number, but also according to groups (elements of the same group have similar physical and chemical properties). This makes it easier to understand how an element behaves. However, as the atomic number increases, elements that fall into the corresponding group are not always found, so there are empty cells in the table.
- For example, the first 3 rows have empty cells, since transition metals are found only from atomic number 21.
- Elements with atomic numbers from 57 to 102 belong to the rare earth elements, and they are usually placed in a separate subgroup in the lower right corner of the table.
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Each row of the table represents a period. All elements of the same period have the same number of atomic orbitals in which electrons are located in atoms. The number of orbitals corresponds to the period number. The table contains 7 rows, that is, 7 periods.
- For example, the atoms of the elements of the first period have one orbital, and the atoms of the elements of the seventh period have 7 orbitals.
- As a rule, periods are indicated by numbers from 1 to 7 on the left of the table.
- As you move along a line from left to right, you are said to be "scanning through a period".
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Learn to distinguish between metals, metalloids and non-metals. You will better understand the properties of an element if you can determine what type it belongs to. For convenience, in most tables, metals, metalloids and non-metals are indicated by different colors. Metals are on the left, and non-metals are on the right side of the table. Metalloids are located between them.
Part 2
Element designations-
Each element is designated by one or two Latin letters. As a rule, the element symbol is shown in large letters in the center of the corresponding cell. A symbol is an abbreviated name for an element that is the same in most languages. When doing experiments and working with chemical equations, the symbols of the elements are commonly used, so it is useful to remember them.
- Typically, element symbols are shorthand for their Latin name, although for some, especially recently discovered elements, they are derived from the common name. For example, helium is denoted by the symbol He, which is close to the common name in most languages. At the same time, iron is designated as Fe, which is an abbreviation of its Latin name.
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Pay attention to the full name of the element, if it is given in the table. This "name" of the element is used in normal texts. For example, "helium" and "carbon" are the names of the elements. Usually, although not always, full names elements are listed below their chemical symbol.
- Sometimes the names of the elements are not indicated in the table and only their chemical symbols are given.
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Find the atomic number. Usually the atomic number of an element is located at the top of the corresponding cell, in the middle or in the corner. It can also appear below the symbol or element name. Elements have atomic numbers from 1 to 118.
- The atomic number is always an integer.
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Remember that the atomic number corresponds to the number of protons in an atom. All atoms of an element contain the same number of protons. Unlike electrons, the number of protons in the atoms of an element remains constant. Otherwise, another chemical element would have turned out!
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Periodic table, or periodic system chemical elements, starts at the top left and ends at the end of the last row of the table (bottom right). The elements in the table are arranged from left to right in ascending order of their atomic number. The atomic number tells you how many protons are in one atom. In addition, as the atomic number increases, so does the atomic mass. Thus, by the location of an element in the periodic table, you can determine its atomic mass.
As you can see, each next element contains one more proton than the element preceding it. This is obvious when you look at the atomic numbers. Atomic numbers increase by one as you move from left to right. Since the elements are arranged in groups, some table cells remain empty.
Ether in the periodic table
The world ether is the substance of ANY chemical element and, therefore, of ANY substance, it is the Absolute true matter as the Universal element-forming Essence.The world ether is the source and crown of the entire genuine Periodic Table, its beginning and end, the alpha and omega of the Periodic Table of Elements of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev.
In ancient philosophy, ether (aithér-Greek), along with earth, water, air and fire, is one of the five elements of being (according to Aristotle) - the fifth essence (quinta essentia - Latin), understood as the finest all-penetrating matter. IN late XIX century in scientific circles, the hypothesis of the world ether (ME), which fills the entire world space, has become widely used. It was understood as a weightless and elastic fluid that permeates all bodies. The existence of the ether tried to explain many physical phenomena and properties.
Preface.
Mendeleev had two fundamental scientific discoveries:
1 - Discovery of the Periodic Law in the substance of chemistry,
2 - The discovery of the relationship between the substance of chemistry and the substance of Ether, namely: particles of Ether form molecules, nuclei, electrons, etc., but in chemical reactions do not participate.
Ether - particles of matter with a size of ~ 10-100 meters (in fact - the "first bricks" of matter).
Data. Ether was in the original periodic table. The cell for Ether was located in the zero group with inert gases and in the zero row as the main system-forming factor for the construction of the System of chemical elements. After the death of Mendeleev, the table was distorted, removing the Ether from it and canceling the zero group, thereby hiding the fundamental discovery of the conceptual meaning.
In modern Ether tables: 1 - not visible, 2 - and not guessed (due to the lack of a zero group).
Such deliberate forgery hinders the development of the progress of civilization.
Man-made disasters (eg Chernobyl and Fukushima) would have been excluded if adequate resources had been invested in the development of a genuine periodic table in a timely manner. Concealment of conceptual knowledge is going on at the global level for the "lowering" of civilization.
Result. In schools and universities they teach a cropped periodic table.
Assessment of the situation. The periodic table without Ether is the same as humanity without children - you can live, but there will be no development and no future.
Summary. If the enemies of humanity hide knowledge, then our task is to reveal this knowledge.
Conclusion. There are fewer elements in the old periodic table and more foresight than in the modern one.
Conclusion. A new level is possible only when the information state of the society changes.
Outcome. A return to the true periodic table is no longer a scientific issue, but a political one.
What was the main political meaning of Einstein's teachings? It consisted in any way blocking access to mankind to inexhaustible natural sources of energy, which were opened by the study of the properties of the world ether. In case of success on this path, the world financial oligarchy lost power in this world, especially in the light of the retrospective of those years: the Rockefellers made an unthinkable fortune that exceeded the budget of the United States on oil speculation, and the loss of the role of oil, which was occupied by "black gold" in this world - the role of the blood of the world economy - did not inspire them.
This did not inspire other oligarchs - coal and steel kings. So the financial magnate Morgan immediately stopped funding the experiments of Nikola Tesla, when he came close to wireless transmission energy and extraction of energy "out of nowhere" - from the world ether. After that, the owner of a huge number of embodied in practice technical solutions did not provide financial assistance no one - solidarity among financial tycoons like thieves in law and a phenomenal nose for where the danger comes from. That is why against humanity and a sabotage called "The Special Theory of Relativity" was carried out.
One of the first blows fell on Dmitri Mendeleev's table, in which the ether was the first number, it was reflections on the ether that gave rise to Mendeleev's brilliant insight - his periodic table of elements.
Chapter from the article: V.G. Rodionov. The place and role of the world ether in the true table of D.I. Mendeleev
6. Argumentum ad rem
What is now presented in schools and universities under the name "Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D.I. Mendeleev, ”is an outright fake.
The last time, in an undistorted form, the real Periodic Table saw the light in 1906 in St. Petersburg (textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", VIII edition). And only after 96 years of oblivion, the real Periodic Table rises from the ashes for the first time thanks to the publication of a dissertation in the ZhRFM journal of the Russian Physical Society.
After the sudden death of D. I. Mendeleev and the death of his faithful scientific colleagues in the Russian Physical-Chemical Society, for the first time he raised his hand to the immortal creation of Mendeleev - the son of a friend and colleague of D. I. Mendeleev in the Society - Boris Nikolaevich Menshutkin. Of course, Menshutkin did not act alone - he only carried out the order. After all, the new paradigm of relativism required the rejection of the idea of the world ether; and therefore this requirement was elevated to the rank of dogma, and the work of D. I. Mendeleev was falsified.
The main distortion of the Table is the transfer of the "zero group" of the Table to its end, to the right, and the introduction of the so-called. "periods". We emphasize that such a (only at first glance - harmless) manipulation is logically explicable only as a conscious elimination of the main methodological link in Mendeleev's discovery: the periodic system of elements at its beginning, source, i.e. in the upper left corner of the Table, should have a zero group and a zero row, where the element “X” is located (according to Mendeleev - “Newtonium”), i.e. world broadcast.
Moreover, being the only backbone element of the entire Table of derived elements, this element "X" is the argument of the entire Periodic Table. The transfer of the zero group of the Table to its end destroys the very idea of \u200b\u200bthis fundamental principle of the entire system of elements according to Mendeleev.
To confirm the above, let's give the floor to D. I. Mendeleev himself.
“... If the analogues of argon do not give compounds at all, then it is obvious that it is impossible to include any of the groups of previously known elements, and for them a special group zero must be opened ... This position of argon analogues in the zero group is a strictly logical consequence of understanding the periodic law, and therefore (the placement in group VIII is clearly not correct) was accepted not only by me, but also by Braisner, Piccini and others ... Now, when it has become beyond the slightest doubt that there is a zero group in front of that I group, in which hydrogen should be placed, representatives of which have atomic weights less than those of the elements of group I, it seems to me impossible to deny the existence of elements lighter than hydrogen.
Of these, let us first pay attention to the element of the first row of the 1st group. Let's denote it by "y". He, obviously, will belong to the fundamental properties of argon gases ... "Koroniy", with a density of the order of 0.2 relative to hydrogen; and it cannot by any means be the world ether.
This element "y", however, is necessary in order to mentally get close to that most important, and therefore the most rapidly moving element "x", which, in my opinion, can be considered ether. I would like to call it "Newtonium" in honor of the immortal Newton... The problem of gravitation and the problem of all energy (!!! - V. Rodionov) cannot be imagined to be really solved without a real understanding of the ether as a world medium that transmits energy over distances. A real understanding of the ether cannot be achieved by ignoring its chemistry and not considering it an elementary substance; elementary substances are now inconceivable without subjecting them to periodic law” (“An attempt at a chemical understanding of the world ether”, 1905, p. 27).
“These elements, in terms of their atomic weights, occupied an exact place between the halides and the alkali metals, as shown by Ramsay in 1900. From these elements it is necessary to form a special zero group, which was first recognized in 1900 by Herrere in Belgium. I consider it useful to add here that, judging directly by the inability to combine elements of the zero group, analogues of argon should be put before the elements of group 1 and in spirit periodic system expect for them a lower atomic weight than for alkali metals.
This is how it turned out. And if so, then this circumstance, on the one hand, serves as a confirmation of the correctness of the periodic principles, and on the other hand, clearly shows the relationship of analogues of argon to other previously known elements. As a result, it is possible to apply the principles being analyzed even more widely than before, and wait for elements of the zero row with atomic weights much lower than those of hydrogen.
Thus, it can be shown that in the first row, first before hydrogen, there is an element of the zero group with an atomic weight of 0.4 (perhaps this is Yong's coronium), and in the zero row, in the zero group, there is a limiting element with a negligibly small atomic weight, not capable of chemical interactions and possessing, as a result, an extremely fast own partial (gas) motion.
These properties, perhaps, should be attributed to the atoms of the all-penetrating (!!! - V. Rodionov) world ether. The thought of this is indicated by me in the preface to this edition and in a Russian journal article of 1902 ... ”(“ Fundamentals of Chemistry. VIII ed., 1906, p. 613 et seq.)
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From the comments:
For chemistry, the modern periodic table of elements is sufficient.
The role of the ether can be useful in nuclear reactions, but even this is too insignificant.
Accounting for the influence of the ether is closest in the phenomena of isotope decay. However, this accounting is extremely complex and the existence of regularities is not accepted by all scientists.
The simplest proof of the existence of an ether: The phenomenon of annihilation of a positron-electron pair and the emergence of this pair from vacuum, as well as the impossibility of catching an electron at rest. So is the electromagnetic field and the complete analogy between photons in vacuum and sound waves - phonons in crystals.
Ether is a differentiated matter, so to speak, atoms in a disassembled state, or more correctly, elementary particles from which future atoms are formed. Therefore, it has no place in the periodic table, since the logic of building this system does not imply including in its composition non-integral structures, which are the atoms themselves. Otherwise, it is possible to find a place for quarks, somewhere in the minus first period.
The ether itself has a more complex multi-level structure of manifestation in world existence than modern science knows about it. As soon as she reveals the first secrets of this elusive ether, then new engines will be invented for all kinds of machines on absolutely new principles.
Indeed, Tesla was perhaps the only one who was close to unraveling the mystery of the so-called ether, but he was deliberately prevented from carrying out his plans. So, until today, that genius has not yet been born who will continue the work of the great inventor and tell us all what the mysterious ether really is and what pedestal it can be placed on.
Ether in the periodic table
Officially taught in schools and universities, the periodic table of chemical elements is a fake. Mendeleev himself, in his work entitled “An attempt at a chemical understanding of the world ether”, gave a slightly different table (Polytechnic Museum, Moscow):
The last time, in an undistorted form, the real Periodic Table saw the light in 1906 in St. Petersburg (textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", VIII edition). The differences are visible: the zero group is moved to the 8th, and the element lighter than hydrogen, with which the table should begin and which is conventionally called Newtonium (ether), is generally excluded.
The same table is immortalized by the "bloody tyrant" comrade. Stalin in St. Petersburg, Moskovsky Ave. 19. VNIIM them. D. I. Mendeleeva (All-Russian Research Institute of Metrology)
Monument-table Periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev made mosaic under the guidance of Professor of the Academy of Arts V.A. Frolov (architectural design of Krichevsky). The monument is based on a table from the last lifetime 8th edition (1906) of Fundamentals of Chemistry by D.I. Mendeleev. Elements discovered during the life of D.I. Mendeleev are marked in red. Elements discovered from 1907 to 1934 are marked in blue. The height of the monument-table is 9 m. The total area is 69 sq. m. m
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Why and how did it happen that we are so openly lied to?
The place and role of the world ether in the true table of D.I. Mendeleev
1. Suprema lex - salus populi
Many have heard about Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev and about the “Periodic law of changes in the properties of chemical elements by groups and series” discovered by him in the 19th century (1869) (the author’s name for the table is “The Periodic Table of Elements by Groups and Series”).
Many also heard that D.I. Mendeleev was the organizer and permanent leader (1869-1905) of the Russian public scientific association called the Russian Chemical Society (since 1872 - the Russian Physico-Chemical Society), which throughout its existence published the world-famous journal ZhRFKhO, up to until the liquidation by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1930 - both the Society and its journal.
But few of those who know that D.I. Mendeleev was one of the last world-famous Russian scientists of the late 19th century who defended in world science the idea of ether as a universal substantial entity, who gave it fundamental scientific and applied significance in revealing the secrets of Being and for improving the economic life of people.
Even fewer of those who know that after the sudden (!!?) death of D.I. Mendeleev (01/27/1907), then recognized as an outstanding scientist by all scientific communities around the world except for the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences alone, his main discovery - the "Periodic Law" - was deliberately and everywhere falsified by world academic science.
And there are very few who know that all of the above is linked together by the thread of sacrificial service of the best representatives and bearers of the immortal Russian Physical Thought for the good of the peoples, for public benefit, despite the growing wave of irresponsibility in the upper strata of society of that time.
In essence, this dissertation is devoted to the comprehensive development of the last thesis, because in true science any neglect of essential factors always leads to false results. So, the question is: why do scientists lie?
2. Psy-factor: ni foi, ni loi
It is only now, since the end of the 20th century, that society is beginning to understand (and even then timidly) using practical examples that an outstanding and highly qualified, but irresponsible, cynical, immoral scientist with a “world name” is no less dangerous for people than an outstanding one, but an immoral politician, military man, lawyer, or at best, an "outstanding" highwayman.
The society was inspired with the idea that the world academic scientific environment is a caste of celestials, monks, holy fathers, who day and night bake for the good of the peoples. And mere mortals should simply look their benefactors in the mouth, resignedly financing and implementing all their “scientific” projects, forecasts and instructions for reorganizing their public and private lives.
In fact, the criminal-criminal element in the world scientific community is no less than in the environment of the same politicians. In addition, the criminal, anti-social acts of politicians are most often visible immediately, but the criminal and harmful, but "scientifically based" activities of "prominent" and "authoritative" scientists are not recognized by society immediately, but after years, or even decades. , on their own "public skin".
Let us continue our study of this extremely interesting (and secret!) psychophysiological factor scientific activity(Let's call it conditionally a psi factor), which a posteriori results in an unexpected (?!) negative result: “we wanted what was best for people, but it turned out as always, i.e. to the detriment." Indeed, in science, a negative result is also a result that certainly requires a comprehensive scientific understanding.
Considering the correlation between the psi-factor and the main objective function (MTF) of the state funding body, we come to an interesting conclusion: the so-called pure, big science of the past centuries has degenerated into a caste of untouchables, i.e. into the closed box of court healers, who brilliantly mastered the science of deceit, who brilliantly mastered the science of persecuting dissidents and the science of subservience to their powerful financiers.
At the same time, it must be borne in mind that, firstly, in all the so-called. "civilized countries" of their so-called. "national academies of sciences" formally have the status government organizations with the rights of the leading scientific expert body of the respective government. Secondly, all these national academies of sciences are united among themselves into a single rigid hierarchical structure (whose true name the world does not know), which develops a strategy of behavior in the world that is common for all national academies of sciences and a single so-called. a scientific paradigm, the core of which is by no means the disclosure of the laws of life, but the psi factor: by carrying out the so-called “scientific” cover (for solidity) of all the unseemly acts of those in power in the eyes of society, as “court healers”, to acquire the glory of priests and prophets, influencing like the demiurge on the very course of the movement of human history.
Everything stated above in this section, including the term “psi-factor” introduced by us, was predicted with great accuracy, reasonably, by D.I. Mendeleev more than 100 years ago (see, for example, his analytical article of 1882 “What kind of Academy is needed in Russia?”, in which Dmitry Ivanovich actually gives a detailed description of the psi factor and in which they proposed a program for the radical reorganization of a closed scientific corporation of members Russian Academy Sciences, who considered the Academy solely as a feeding trough to satisfy their selfish interests.
In one of his letters 100 years ago to the professor of Kyiv University P.P. Alekseev D.I. Mendeleev frankly admitted that he was “ready to burn himself in order to smoke the devil out, in other words, to transform the foundations of the academy into something new, Russian, his own, suitable for everyone in general and, in particular, for the scientific movement in Russia.”
As we can see, a truly great scientist, citizen and patriot of his Motherland is capable of even the most complex long-term scientific forecasts. Let us now consider the historical aspect of the change in this psi-factor, discovered by D.I. Mendeleev at the end of the 19th century.
3. Fin de siecle
Since the second half of the 19th century in Europe, on the wave of "liberalism", there has been a rapid numerical growth of the intelligentsia, scientific and technical personnel and the quantitative growth of theories, ideas and scientific and technical projects offered by these personnel to society.
By the end of the 19th century, competition for a “place under the Sun” sharply intensified among them, i.e. for titles, honors and awards, and as a result of this competition, the polarization of scientific personnel according to moral criteria has intensified. This contributed to the explosive activation of the psi-factor.
The revolutionary enthusiasm of young, ambitious and unprincipled scientists and intelligentsia, intoxicated by their imminent scholarship and impatient desire to become famous at any cost in the scientific world, paralyzed not only representatives of a more responsible and more honest circle of scientists, but the entire scientific community as a whole, with its infrastructure and well-established traditions that previously opposed the rampant growth of the psi factor.
The revolutionary intellectuals of the 19th century, the overthrowers of thrones and the state order in the countries of Europe, spread the bandit methods of their ideological and political struggle against the "old order" with the help of bombs, revolvers, poisons and conspiracies) also into the field of scientific and technical activity. In student classrooms, laboratories and at scientific symposiums, they ridiculed supposedly obsolete sanity, supposedly outdated concepts of formal logic - the consistency of judgments, their validity. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, instead of the method of persuasion, the method of total suppression of one's opponents, by means of mental, physical and moral violence against them, entered into the fashion of scientific disputes (more precisely, burst, with a screech and a roar). At the same time, naturally, the value of the psi-factor reached an extremely high level, having experienced its extreme in the 30s.
As a result - at the beginning of the 20th century, the "enlightened" intelligentsia, in fact, by force, i.e. in a revolutionary way, she changed the truly scientific paradigm of humanism, enlightenment and social benefit in natural science to her own paradigm of permanent relativism, giving it a pseudoscientific form of the theory of general relativity (cynicism!).
The first paradigm was based on experience and its comprehensive assessment for the sake of searching for truth, searching for and comprehending the objective laws of nature. The second paradigm emphasized hypocrisy and unscrupulousness; and not to search for objective laws of nature, but for the sake of their selfish group interests to the detriment of society. The first paradigm worked for the public good, while the second did not.
From the 1930s to the present, the psi factor has stabilized, remaining an order of magnitude higher than its value at the beginning and middle of the 19th century.
For a more objective and clear assessment of the real, and not the mythical, contribution of the activities of the world scientific community (represented by all national academies of sciences) to the public and private lives of people, we introduce the concept of a normalized psi-factor.
The normalized value of the psi-factor, equal to one, corresponds to a one hundred percent probability of obtaining such a negative result (i.e., such social harm) from the introduction into practice of scientific developments that declared a priori a positive result (i.e., a certain social benefit) for a single historical period of time (change of one generation of people, about 25 years), in which all of humanity completely dies or degenerates in no more than 25 years from the date of the introduction of a certain block of scientific programs.
4. Kill with kindness
The cruel and dirty victory of relativism and militant atheism in the mentality of the world scientific community at the beginning of the 20th century is the main cause of all human troubles in this "atomic", "space" age of the so-called "scientific and technological progress". Looking back, what more evidence do we need today to understand the obvious: in the 20th century, there was not a single socially useful act of a worldwide fraternity of scientists in the field of natural science and social sciences, which would strengthen the population of homo sapiens, phylogenetically and morally. And there is just the opposite: ruthless mutilation, destruction and annihilation of the psycho-somatic nature of man, his healthy lifestyle and his environment under various plausible pretexts.
At the very beginning of the 20th century, all the key academic positions of managing the progress of research, topics, financing of scientific and technical activities, etc. were occupied by a “brotherhood of like-minded people” who professed a dual religion of cynicism and selfishness. This is the drama of our time.
It was militant atheism and cynical relativism, through the efforts of its adherents, that entangled the consciousness of all, without exception, higher statesmen on our planet. It was this two-headed fetish of anthropocentrism that gave rise to and introduced into the consciousness of millions the so-called scientific concept of the “universal principle of the degradation of matter-energy”, i.e. universal disintegration of previously emerged - not know how - objects in nature. In place of the absolute fundamental essence (the global substantive environment), a pseudo-scientific chimera of the universal principle of energy degradation, with its mythical attribute - "entropy", was put.
5. Littera contra littere
According to such luminaries of the past as Leibniz, Newton, Torricelli, Lavoisier, Lomonosov, Ostrogradsky, Faraday, Maxwell, Mendeleev, Umov, J. Thomson, Kelvin, G. Hertz, Pirogov, Timiryazev, Pavlov, Bekhterev and many, many others - world environment- this is an absolute fundamental essence (= substance of the world = world ether = all matter of the Universe = "quintessence" of Aristotle), filling isotropically and without a trace the entire infinite world space and being the Source and Carrier of all types of energy in nature, - indestructible "forces of motion", "forces of action".
In contrast to this, according to the idea that is now dominant in world science, the mathematical fiction “entropy”, and even some “information”, which, in all seriousness, the world academic luminaries recently proclaimed the so-called “entropy”, was proclaimed to be an absolute fundamental essence. "Universal fundamental essence", without bothering to give this new term a detailed definition.
According to the scientific paradigm of the first, harmony and order of the eternal life of the Universe reigns in the world, through constant local renewals (a series of deaths and births) of individual material formations of different scales.
According to the pseudoscientific paradigm of the latter, the world, once created in an incomprehensible way, moves in the abyss of universal degradation, equalization of temperatures to universal, universal death under the vigilant control of a certain World Supercomputer that owns and manages some “information”.
Some see the triumph of eternal life around, while others see decay and death all around, controlled by some kind of World Information Bank.
The struggle of these two diametrically opposed worldview concepts for dominance in the minds of millions of people - central point biographies of humanity. And the stake in this struggle is the highest degree.
And it is no coincidence that the entire 20th century the world scientific establishment is busy with the introduction (supposedly as the only possible and promising ones) of fuel energy, the theory of explosives, synthetic poisons and drugs, poisonous substances, genetic engineering with the cloning of biorobots, with the degeneration of the human race to the level of primitive oligophrenics, downs and psychopaths. And these programs and plans are not even hidden from the public now.
The truth of life is this: the most prosperous and powerful spheres on a global scale human activity, created in the 20th century according to the latest scientific thought, were: porno, drug, pharmaceutical business, arms trade, including global information and psychotronic technologies. Their share in the global volume of all financial flows significantly exceeds 50%.
Further. Having disfigured nature on Earth for 1.5 centuries, the world academic fraternity is now in a hurry to “colonize” and “conquer” near-Earth space, having intentions and scientific projects to turn this space into a garbage dump of their “high” technologies. These gentlemen-academicians are literally bursting with the longed-for satanic idea to take charge in the near-solar space, and not just on Earth.
Thus, the stone of extremely subjective idealism (anthropocentrism) is laid at the base of the paradigm of the world academic fraternity of freemasons, and the very building of their so-called. scientific paradigm rests on permanent and cynical relativism and militant atheism.
But the pace of true progress is inexorable. And, just as all life on Earth is drawn to the Luminary, so the mind of a certain part of modern scientists and naturalists, not burdened by the clan interests of the global brotherhood, is drawn to the sun of eternal Life, eternal movement in the Universe, through the knowledge of the fundamental truths of Being and the search for the main target function existence and evolution of the species xomo sapiens. Now, having considered the nature of the psi-factor, let's take a look at the Table of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev.
6. Argumentum ad rem
What is now presented in schools and universities under the name "Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D.I. Mendeleev”, is an outright fake.
The last time, in an undistorted form, the real Periodic Table saw the light in 1906 in St. Petersburg (textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", VIII edition).
And only after 96 years of oblivion, the real Periodic Table rises from the ashes for the first time thanks to the publication of this dissertation in the ZhRFM journal of the Russian Physical Society. Genuine, unfalsified Table D.I. Mendeleev "The Periodic Table of Elements by Groups and Series" (D. I. Mendeleev. Fundamentals of Chemistry. VIII edition, St. Petersburg, 1906)
After the sudden death of D.I. Mendeleev and the death of his faithful scientific colleagues in the Russian Physical-Chemical Society, for the first time he raised his hand to the immortal creation of Mendeleev - the son of a friend and colleague D.I. Mendeleev on the Society - Boris Nikolaevich Menshutkin. Of course, that Boris Nikolayevich also did not act alone - he only carried out the order. After all, the new paradigm of relativism required the rejection of the idea of the world ether; and therefore this requirement was elevated to the rank of dogma, and the work of D.I. Mendeleev was falsified.
The main distortion of the Table is the transfer of the “zero group”. Tables at its end, to the right, and the introduction of the so-called. "periods". We emphasize that such a (only at first glance - harmless) manipulation is logically explainable only as a conscious elimination of the main methodological link in Mendeleev's discovery: the periodic system of elements at its beginning, source, i.e. in the upper left corner of the Table, should have a zero group and a zero row, where the element “X” is located (according to Mendeleev - “Newtonium”), i.e. world broadcast.
Moreover, being the only backbone element of the entire Table of derived elements, this element “X” is the argument of the entire Periodic Table. The transfer of the zero group of the Table to its end destroys the very idea of \u200b\u200bthis fundamental principle of the entire system of elements according to Mendeleev.
To confirm the above, let's give the floor to D. I. Mendeleev himself.
“... If the analogues of argon do not give compounds at all, then it is obvious that none of the groups of previously known elements can be included, and a special group zero must be opened for them ... This position of argon analogues in the zero group is a strictly logical consequence of understanding of the periodic law, and therefore (the placement in group VIII is clearly not correct) is accepted not only by me, but also by Braisner, Piccini and others ...
Now, when it has become beyond the slightest doubt that before that group I, in which hydrogen should be placed, there is a zero group, the representatives of which have atomic weights less than those of the elements of group I, it seems to me impossible to deny the existence of elements lighter than hydrogen.
Of these, let us first pay attention to the element of the first row of the 1st group. Let's denote it by "y". He, obviously, will belong to the fundamental properties of argon gases ... "Koroniy", with a density of about 0.2 relative to hydrogen; and it cannot by any means be the world ether. This element "y", however, is necessary in order to mentally get close to that most important, and therefore the most rapidly moving element "x", which, in my opinion, can be considered ether. I would like to preliminarily name it “Newtonium” - in honor of the immortal Newton... The problem of gravitation and the problems of all energy (!!!) cannot be imagined to be really solved without a real understanding of the ether as a world medium that transmits energy over distances. A real understanding of the ether cannot be achieved by ignoring its chemistry and not considering it as an elementary substance” (“An attempt at a chemical understanding of the world ether”, 1905, p. 27).
“These elements, in terms of their atomic weights, occupied an exact place between the halides and the alkali metals, as shown by Ramsay in 1900. From these elements it is necessary to form a special zero group, which was first recognized in 1900 by Herrere in Belgium. I consider it useful to add here that, judging directly by the inability to combine elements of the zero group, analogues of argon should be put before (!!!) elements of group 1 and, in the spirit of the periodic system, expect for them a lower atomic weight than for alkali metals.
This is how it turned out. And if so, then this circumstance, on the one hand, serves as a confirmation of the correctness of the periodic principles, and on the other hand, clearly shows the relationship of analogues of argon to other previously known elements. As a result, it is possible to apply the principles being analyzed even more widely than before, and wait for elements of the zero row with atomic weights much lower than those of hydrogen.
Thus, it can be shown that in the first row, first before hydrogen, there is an element of the zero group with an atomic weight of 0.4 (perhaps this is Yong's coronium), and in the zero row, in the zero group, there is a limiting element with a negligibly small atomic weight, not capable of chemical interactions and possessing, as a result, an extremely fast own partial (gas) motion.
These properties, perhaps, should be attributed to the atoms of the all-penetrating (!!!) world ether. The thought about this is indicated by me in the preface to this edition and in a Russian journal article of 1902 ... ”(“ Fundamentals of Chemistry. VIII ed., 1906, p. 613 et seq.).
7. Punctum soliens
From these quotations the following follows quite definitely.
- The elements of the zero group begin each row of other elements, located on the left side of the Table, "... which is a strictly logical consequence of understanding the periodic law" - Mendeleev.
- Particularly important and even exceptional in the sense of the periodic law, the place belongs to the element "x", - "Newton", - the world ether. And this special element should be located at the very beginning of the entire Table, in the so-called “zero group of the zero row”. Moreover, being a system-forming element (more precisely, a system-forming entity) of all elements of the Periodic Table, the world ether is a substantive argument for the whole variety of elements of the Periodic Table. The Table itself, in this regard, acts as a closed functional of this very argument.
Now let's turn to the works of the first falsifiers of the Periodic Table.
8. Corpus delicti
In order to eradicate the idea of the exclusive role of the world ether from the consciousness of all subsequent generations of scientists (and this was precisely what the new paradigm of relativism required), the elements of the zero group were specially transferred from the left side of the Periodic Table to the right side, shifting the corresponding elements one row lower and aligning the zero group with the so-called "eighth". Of course, neither the element "y" nor the element "x" in the falsified table has no place left.
But even this was not enough for the brotherhood of relativists. Exactly the opposite, the fundamental thought of D.I. Mendeleev about the especially important role of the world ether. In particular, in the preface to the first falsified version of the Periodic Law, D.I. Mendeleev, not at all embarrassed, B.M. Menshutkin states that Mendeleev allegedly always opposed the special role of the world ether in natural processes. Here is an excerpt from an article by B.N. Menshutkin:
“Thus (?!) we again return to that view, against which (?!) always (?!!!) D. I. Mendeleev opposed, which from the most ancient times existed among philosophers who considered all visible and known substances and bodies composed of the same primary substance of the Greek philosophers (“proteule” of the Greek philosophers, prima materia - Roman). This hypothesis has always found adherents due to its simplicity and in the teachings of philosophers it was called the hypothesis of the unity of matter or the hypothesis of unitary matter.". (B.N. Menshutkin. “D.I. Mendeleev. The Periodic Law”. Edited and with an article on the current position of the periodic law by B.N. Menshutkin. State Publishing House, M-L., 1926).
9. In rerum nature
Assessing the views of D. I. Mendeleev and his unscrupulous opponents, the following should be noted.
Most likely, Mendeleev was involuntarily mistaken in that the “world ether” is an “elementary substance” (ie, a “chemical element” - in the modern sense of this term). Most likely, the "world ether" is the true substance; and as such, in the strict sense, not a "substance"; and it does not possess "elementary chemistry" i.e. does not have "extremely low atomic weight" with "extremely fast proper partial motion".
Let D.I. Mendeleev was mistaken in the "substantiality", "chemistry" of the ether. In the end, this is a terminological miscalculation of the great scientist; and in his time it is excusable, because then these terms were still quite vague, only entering into scientific circulation. But something else is completely clear: Dmitry Ivanovich was absolutely right in that the “world ether” is the essence that forms everything, the quintessence, the substance of which the whole world of things (the material world) consists and in which all material formations reside. Dmitry Ivanovich is also right in that this substance transmits energy over distances and does not have any chemical activity. The latter circumstance only confirms our idea that D.I. Mendeleev consciously singled out the element "x" as an exceptional entity.
So, the "world ether", i.e. the substance of the Universe is isotropic, does not have a partial structure, but is the absolute (i.e., the ultimate, fundamental, fundamental universal) essence of the Universe, the Universe. And precisely because, as D.I. Mendeleev, - the world ether "is not capable of chemical interactions", and therefore is not a "chemical element", i.e. "elementary substance" - in the modern sense of these terms.
Dmitry Ivanovich was also right in that the world ether is a carrier of energy over distances. Let's say more: the world ether, as the substance of the World, is not only a carrier, but also a "keeper" and "carrier" of all types of energy ("forces of action") in nature.
From the depths of centuries D.I. Mendeleev is echoed by another outstanding scientist - Torricelli (1608 - 1647): "Energy is the quintessence of such a subtle nature that it cannot be contained in any other vessel, but only in the innermost substance of material things."
So, according to Mendeleev and Torricelli world broadcast is the innermost substance of material things. That is why Mendeleev's "Newtonium" is not just in the zero row of the zero group of his periodic system, but it is a kind of "crown" of his entire table of chemical elements. The crown that forms all the chemical elements in the world, i.e. all substance. This Crown (“Mother”, “Matter-substance” of any substance) is the Natural environment, set in motion and induced to change - according to our calculations - by another (second) absolute essence, which we called the “Substantial flow of primary fundamental information about forms and ways of motion of Matter in the Universe”. More about this - in the journal "Russian Thought", 1-8, 1997, pp. 28-31.
As a mathematical symbol of the world ether, we chose “O”, zero, and as a semantic symbol, “bosom”. In turn, we chose “1”, the unit, as the mathematical symbol of the Substantial flow, and “one” as the semantic symbol. Thus, based on the above symbolism, it becomes possible to succinctly express in one mathematical expression the totality of all possible forms and ways of the movement of matter in nature:
This expression mathematically defines the so-called. an open interval of intersection of two sets, - sets “O” and sets “1”, while the semantic definition of this expression is “one in the womb” or otherwise: The substantial flow of primary fundamental information about the forms and methods of movement of Matter-substance completely permeates this Matter-substance, i.e. world broadcast.
In religious doctrines, this “open interval” is clothed in the figurative form of the Universal act of creation by God of all matter in the World from Matter-substance, with which He is continuously in a state of fruitful copulation.
The author of this article is aware that this mathematical construction was once again inspired by him, however strange it may seem, by the ideas of the unforgettable D.I. Mendeleev, expressed by him in his works (see, for example, the article "An attempt at a chemical understanding of the world ether"). Now it is time to sum up our research presented in this dissertation.
10. Errata: ferro et igni
Peremptory and cynical ignoring by world science of the place and role of the world ether in natural processes (and in the Periodic Table!) just gave rise to the whole gamut of problems of mankind in our technocratic age.
Chief among these problems is fuel and energy.
It is precisely the ignoring of the role of the world ether that allows scientists to make a false (and crafty - at the same time) conclusion that a person can extract useful energy for his daily needs only by burning, i.e. irrevocably destroying the substance (fuel). Hence the false thesis that the current fuel energy industry has no real alternative. And if so, then supposedly only one thing remains: to produce nuclear (environmentally the dirtiest!) energy and gas-oil-coal production, clogging and poisoning immensely their own habitat.
It is precisely the ignoring of the role of the world ether that pushes all modern nuclear scientists to the crafty search for "salvation" in the splitting of atoms and elementary particles at special expensive synchrotron accelerators. In the course of these monstrous and extremely dangerous experiments in their consequences, they want to discover and further use the so-called supposedly "for the good". "quark-gluon plasma", according to their false ideas - as if "pre-matter" (the term of the nuclear scientists themselves), according to their false cosmological theory of the so-called. " big bang Universe."
It is worthy of note, according to our calculations, that if this so-called. “The most secret dream of all modern nuclear physicists” will be inadvertently achieved, then this will most likely be the man-made end of all life on earth and the end of the planet earth itself, - truly the “Big Bang” on a global scale, but not just pretend, but for real.
Therefore, it is necessary to stop this crazy experimentation of world academic science as soon as possible, which is hit from head to toe with the poison of the psi factor and which, it seems, does not even imagine the possible catastrophic consequences of these crazy parascientific undertakings.
D. I. Mendeleev turned out to be right, “The problem of gravitation and the problems of the entire energy industry cannot be imagined to be really solved without a real understanding of the ether as a world medium that transmits energy at distances.”
D. I. Mendeleev turned out to be right in the fact that “someday they will guess that handing over the affairs of this industry to persons living in it does not lead to the best consequences, although it is useful to listen to such persons.”
“The main meaning of what has been said lies in the fact that common, eternal and lasting interests often do not coincide with personal and temporary ones, they even often contradict one another, and, in my opinion, it is necessary to prefer - if it is already impossible to reconcile - the first, and not the second. This is the drama of our time.” D. I. Mendeleev. "Thoughts towards the knowledge of Russia". 1906
So, the world ether is the substance of any chemical element and, therefore, of any substance, it is the Absolute true matter as the Universal element-forming Essence.
The world ether is the source and crown of the entire genuine Periodic Table, its beginning and end, the alpha and omega of the Periodic Table of Elements of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev.
The periodic table is one of greatest discoveries humanity, which made it possible to streamline knowledge about the world around us and discover new chemical elements. It is necessary for schoolchildren, as well as for everyone who is interested in chemistry. In addition, this scheme is indispensable in other areas of science.
This diagram contains all known to man elements, and they are grouped according to atomic mass and serial number. These characteristics affect the properties of the elements. In total, there are 8 groups in the short version of the table, the elements included in one group have very similar properties. The first group contains hydrogen, lithium, potassium, copper, the Latin pronunciation in Russian of which is cuprum. And also argentum - silver, cesium, gold - aurum and francium. The second group contains beryllium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, followed by strontium, cadmium, barium, and the group ends with mercury and radium.
The third group includes boron, aluminum, scandium, gallium, then yttrium, indium, lanthanum, and the group ends with thallium and actinium. The fourth group begins with carbon, silicon, titanium, continues with germanium, zirconium, tin, and ends with hafnium, lead, and rutherfordium. In the fifth group there are elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, vanadium, arsenic, niobium, antimony are located below, then bismuth tantalum comes and completes the dubnium group. The sixth begins with oxygen, followed by sulfur, chromium, selenium, then molybdenum, tellurium, then tungsten, polonium and seaborgium.
In the seventh group, the first element is fluorine, followed by chlorine, manganese, bromine, technetium, followed by iodine, then rhenium, astatine and borium. The last group is the most numerous. It includes gases such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. This group also includes the metals iron, cobalt, nickel, rhodium, palladium, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, platinum. Next come hannium and meitnerium. Separately located elements that form the actinide series and the lanthanide series. They have similar properties to lanthanum and actinium.
This scheme includes all types of elements, which are divided into 2 large groups – metals and non-metals with different properties. How to determine whether an element belongs to a particular group, a conditional line will help, which must be drawn from boron to astatine. It should be remembered that such a line can only be drawn in full version tables. All elements that are above this line and are located in the main subgroups are considered non-metals. And which are lower, in the main subgroups - metals. Also, metals are substances that are in side subgroups. There are special pictures and photos on which you can get acquainted with the position of these elements in detail. It is worth noting that those elements that are on this line exhibit the same properties of both metals and non-metals.
A separate list is also made up of amphoteric elements, which have dual properties and can form 2 types of compounds as a result of reactions. At the same time, they manifest equally both basic and acid properties. The predominance of certain properties depends on the reaction conditions and the substances with which the amphoteric element reacts.
It should be noted that this scheme in the traditional execution of good quality is color. At the same time, different colors for ease of orientation are indicated main and secondary subgroups. And also elements are grouped depending on the similarity of their properties.
However, at present, along with the color scheme, the black-and-white periodic table of Mendeleev is very common. This form is used for black and white printing. Despite the apparent complexity, working with it is just as convenient, given some of the nuances. Yes, distinguish main subgroup from the side in this case, it is possible by differences in shades that are clearly visible. In addition, in the color version, elements with the presence of electrons on different layers are indicated different colors.
It is worth noting that in a single-color design it is not very difficult to navigate the scheme. For this, the information indicated in each individual cell of the element will be enough.
The exam today is the main type of test at the end of school, which means that preparation for it must be given Special attention. Therefore, when choosing final exam in chemistry, you need to pay attention to the materials that can help in its delivery. As a rule, students are allowed to use some tables during the exam, in particular, the periodic table in good quality. Therefore, in order for it to bring only benefit in tests, attention should be paid in advance to its structure and the study of the properties of the elements, as well as their sequence. You also need to learn use the black and white version of the table so that you don't face any difficulties in the exam.
In addition to the main table characterizing the properties of elements and their dependence on atomic mass, there are other schemes that can help in the study of chemistry. For example, there are tables of solubility and electronegativity of substances. The first one can determine how soluble a particular compound is in water at ordinary temperature. In this case, anions are located horizontally - negatively charged ions, and cations, that is, positively charged ions, are located vertically. To find out degree of solubility of one or another compound, it is necessary to find its components in the table. And at the place of their intersection there will be the necessary designation.
If it is the letter "r", then the substance is completely soluble in water under normal conditions. In the presence of the letter "m" - the substance is slightly soluble, and in the presence of the letter "n" - it almost does not dissolve. If there is a “+” sign, the compound does not form a precipitate and reacts with the solvent without residue. If a "-" sign is present, it means that such a substance does not exist. Sometimes you can also see the sign “?” in the table, then this means that the degree of solubility of this compound is not known for certain. Electronegativity of the elements can vary from 1 to 8, there is also a special table to determine this parameter.
Another useful table is the metal activity series. All metals are located in it by increasing the degree of electrochemical potential. A series of stress metals begins with lithium, ends with gold. It is believed that the more to the left a metal occupies in this row, the more active it is in chemical reactions. Thus, the most active metal Lithium is considered to be an alkaline metal. Hydrogen is also present at the end of the list of elements. It is believed that the metals that are located after it are practically inactive. Among them are elements such as copper, mercury, silver, platinum and gold.
Periodic table pictures in good quality
This scheme is one of major achievements in the field of chemistry. Wherein There are many types of this table.- a short version, a long one, as well as an extra long one. The most common is the short table, and the long version of the schema is also common. It is worth noting that the short version of the scheme is not currently recommended by IUPAC for use.
Total was more than a hundred types of tables have been developed, which differ in presentation, shape, and graphical representation. They are used in various fields of science, or not used at all. Currently, new circuit configurations continue to be developed by researchers. As the main option, either a short or a long circuit in excellent quality is used.
Chemical element is a collective term that describes a collection of atoms a simple substance, i.e., one that cannot be divided into any simpler (according to the structure of their molecules) components. Imagine that you receive a piece of pure iron with a request to split it into hypothetical components using any device or method ever invented by chemists. However, you can't do anything, the iron will never be divided into something simpler. A simple substance - iron - corresponds to the chemical element Fe.
Theoretical definition
The experimental fact noted above can be explained using the following definition: a chemical element is an abstract collection of atoms (not molecules!) of the corresponding simple substance, i.e. atoms of the same type. If there were a way to look at each of the individual atoms in the piece of pure iron mentioned above, then they would all be the same - iron atoms. In contrast, a chemical compound, such as iron oxide, always contains at least two different kind atoms: iron atoms and oxygen atoms.
Terms you should know
Atomic mass: the mass of protons, neutrons and electrons that make up an atom of a chemical element.
atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an element's atom.
chemical symbol: letter or pair Latin letters A that represents the symbol for this element.
Chemical compound: a substance that consists of two or more chemical elements combined with each other in a certain proportion.
Metal: An element that loses electrons in chemical reactions with other elements.
Metalloid: An element that reacts sometimes as a metal and sometimes as a non-metal.
Non-metal: an element that seeks to obtain electrons in chemical reactions with other elements.
Periodic system of chemical elements: a system for classifying chemical elements according to their atomic numbers.
synthetic element: one that is obtained artificially in the laboratory, and usually does not occur in nature.
Natural and synthetic elements
Ninety-two chemical elements occur naturally on Earth. The rest were obtained artificially in laboratories. A synthetic chemical element is usually a product nuclear reactions in particle accelerators (devices used to increase the speed of subatomic particles such as electrons and protons) or nuclear reactors (devices used to control the energy released in nuclear reactions). The first synthetic element obtained with atomic number 43 was technetium, discovered in 1937 by Italian physicists C. Perrier and E. Segre. Apart from technetium and promethium, all synthetic elements have nuclei larger than those of uranium. The last synthetic element to be named is livermorium (116), and before that was flerovium (114).
Two dozen common and important elements
| Name | Symbol | Percentage of all atoms * | Properties of chemical elements (under normal room conditions) |
|||
| In the Universe | In the earth's crust | In sea water | In the human body |
|||
| Aluminum | Al | - | 6,3 | - | - | Lightweight, silver metal |
| Calcium | Ca | - | 2,1 | - | 0,02 | Included in natural minerals, shells, bones |
| Carbon | WITH | - | - | - | 10,7 | Basis of all living organisms |
| Chlorine | Cl | - | - | 0,3 | - | poisonous gas |
| Copper | Cu | - | - | - | - | Only red metal |
| Gold | Au | - | - | - | - | Only yellow metal |
| Helium | He | 7,1 | - | - | - | Very light gas |
| Hydrogen | H | 92,8 | 2,9 | 66,2 | 60,6 | The lightest of all elements; gas |
| Iodine | I | - | - | - | - | Non-metal; used as an antiseptic |
| Iron | Fe | - | 2,1 | - | - | Magnetic metal; used for the production of iron and steel |
| Lead | Pb | - | - | - | - | Soft, heavy metal |
| Magnesium | mg | - | 2,0 | - | - | Very light metal |
| Mercury | hg | - | - | - | - | Liquid metal; one of two liquid elements |
| Nickel | Ni | - | - | - | - | Corrosion resistant metal; used in coins |
| Nitrogen | N | - | - | - | 2,4 | Gas, the main component of air |
| Oxygen | ABOUT | - | 60,1 | 33,1 | 25,7 | Gas, the second important air component |
| Phosphorus | R | - | - | - | 0,1 | Non-metal; important for plants |
| Potassium | TO | - | 1.1 | - | - | Metal; important for plants; commonly referred to as "potash" |
* If the value is not specified, then the element is less than 0.1 percent.
Big bang as the root cause of the formation of matter
What chemical element was the very first in the universe? Scientists believe that the answer to this question lies in the stars and the processes by which stars are formed. The universe is believed to have originated at some point in time between 12 and 15 billion years ago. Until this moment, nothing that exists, except for energy, is conceived. But something happened that turned this energy into a huge explosion (the so-called Big Bang). In the seconds following the Big Bang, matter began to form.
The first simplest forms of matter to appear were protons and electrons. Some of them are combined into hydrogen atoms. The latter consists of one proton and one electron; it is the simplest atom that can exist.
Slowly, over long periods of time, hydrogen atoms began to gather together in certain regions of space, forming dense clouds. Hydrogen in these clouds was pulled into compact formations by gravitational forces. Eventually these clouds of hydrogen became dense enough to form stars.
Stars as chemical reactors of new elements
A star is simply a mass of matter that generates the energy of nuclear reactions. The most common of these reactions is the combination of four hydrogen atoms to form one helium atom. As soon as stars began to form, helium became the second element to appear in the universe.
As stars get older, they switch from hydrogen-helium nuclear reactions to other types. In them, helium atoms form carbon atoms. Later carbon atoms form oxygen, neon, sodium and magnesium. Still later, neon and oxygen combine with each other to form magnesium. As these reactions continue, more and more chemical elements are formed.
The first systems of chemical elements
Over 200 years ago, chemists began looking for ways to classify them. In the middle of the nineteenth century, about 50 chemical elements were known. One of the questions that chemists sought to resolve. boiled down to the following: is a chemical element a substance completely different from any other element? Or are some elements related to others in some way? Is there a common law that unites them?
Chemists suggested various systems chemical elements. So, for example, the English chemist William Prout in 1815 suggested that the atomic masses of all elements are multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom, if we take it equal to one, that is, they must be integers. At that time, the atomic masses of many elements had already been calculated by J. Dalton in relation to the mass of hydrogen. However, if this is approximately the case for carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, then chlorine with a mass of 35.5 did not fit into this scheme.
The German chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780-1849) showed in 1829 that three elements from the so-called halogen group (chlorine, bromine and iodine) could be classified by their relative atomic masses. The atomic weight of bromine (79.9) turned out to be almost exactly the average of the atomic weights of chlorine (35.5) and iodine (127), namely 35.5 + 127 ÷ 2 = 81.25 (close to 79.9). This was the first approach to the construction of one of the groups of chemical elements. Doberiner discovered two more such triads of elements, but he failed to formulate a general periodic law.
How did the periodic table of chemical elements appear?
Most of the early classification schemes were not very successful. Then, around 1869, almost the same discovery was made by two chemists at almost the same time. Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830-1895) proposed organizing elements that have similar physical and Chemical properties, into an ordered system of groups, series and periods. At the same time, Mendeleev and Meyer pointed out that the properties of chemical elements are periodically repeated depending on their atomic weights.
Today, Mendeleev is generally considered to be the discoverer of the periodic law because he took one step that Meyer did not. When all the elements were located in the periodic table, some gaps appeared in it. Mendeleev predicted that these were sites for elements that had not yet been discovered.
However, he went even further. Mendeleev predicted the properties of these not yet discovered elements. He knew where they were located on the periodic table, so he could predict their properties. It is noteworthy that every predicted chemical element Mendeleev, the future gallium, scandium and germanium, was discovered less than ten years after he published the periodic law.
Short form of the periodic table
There were attempts to calculate how many variants of the graphic representation of the periodic system were proposed by different scientists. It turned out that more than 500. Moreover, 80% total number options are tables and the rest is geometric figures, mathematical curves, etc. As a result practical use found four types of tables: short, semi-long, long and ladder (pyramidal). The latter was proposed by the great physicist N. Bohr.
The figure below shows the short form.
In it, the chemical elements are arranged in ascending order of their atomic numbers from left to right and from top to bottom. So, the first chemical element of the periodic table, hydrogen, has atomic number 1 because the nuclei of hydrogen atoms contain one and only one proton. Similarly, oxygen has an atomic number of 8, since the nuclei of all oxygen atoms contain 8 protons (see the figure below).
The main structural fragments of the periodic system are periods and groups of elements. In six periods, all cells are filled, the seventh is not yet completed (elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, although synthesized in laboratories, have not yet been officially registered and do not have names).
Groups are divided into main (A) and secondary (B) subgroups. The elements of the first three periods, containing one series-line each, are included exclusively in A-subgroups. The remaining four periods include two rows each.
Chemical elements in the same group tend to have similar chemical properties. So, the first group consists of alkali metals, the second - alkaline earth. Elements in the same period have properties that slowly change from an alkali metal to a noble gas. The figure below shows how one of the properties - atomic radius - changes for individual elements in the table.
Long period form of the periodic table
It is shown in the figure below and is divided in two directions, by rows and by columns. There are seven period rows, as in the short form, and 18 columns, called groups or families. In fact, the increase in the number of groups from 8 in short form to 18 in long form is obtained by placing all elements in periods starting from the 4th, not in two, but in one line.
Two different systems numbering is used for groups, as shown at the top of the table. The Roman numeral system (IA, IIA, IIB, IVB, etc.) has traditionally been popular in the US. Another system (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) is traditionally used in Europe, and was recommended for use in the USA a few years ago.
The appearance of the periodic tables in the figures above is a little misleading, as with any such published table. The reason for this is that the two groups of elements shown at the bottom of the tables should actually be located within them. The lanthanides, for example, belong to period 6 between barium (56) and hafnium (72). In addition, the actinides belong to period 7 between radium (88) and rutherfordium (104). If they were pasted into a table, it would be too wide to fit on a piece of paper or a wall chart. Therefore, it is customary to place these elements at the bottom of the table.
