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Valgina N.S. Active processes in modern Russian. active processes in modern Russian

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

State educational institution

TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY

"APPROVE":

Vice Rector for Academic Affairs

_______________________ //

__________ _____________ 2011

ACTIVE PROCESSES IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Training and metodology complex. Working programm

for students of direction 032700.62 "Philology".

The profile of training is "Domestic Philology (Russian Language and Literature)". Full-time form of education and correspondence

"READY FOR RELEASE":

"______" ___________2011

Considered at the meeting of the Department of the Russian Language on February 7, 2011, protocol No. 7

Meets the requirements for content, structure and design.

Volume 20 page

Head department _________________//

"______" ___________ 2011

Considered at the meeting of the Institute of Humanitarian Sciences on April 21, 2011, Protocol No. 1. Corresponds to the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education and the curriculum of the educational program.

"AGREED":

Chairman of the CMD IGN //

"______" _____________2011

"AGREED":

Head methodological department of the UMU _____________ / Fedorova S. A. /

"______" _____________2011

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

State educational institution

higher professional education

TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY

Institute for the Humanities

Department of the Russian language

ACTIVE PROCESSES IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Training and metodology complex. Working programm

for students of direction 032700.62 "Philology".

The profile of training is "Domestic Philology (Russian Language and Literature)".

Form of study full-time and part-time

Tyumen State University

ACTIVE PROCESSES IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. Training and metodology complex. Work program for 3rd year students of direction 032700.62 "Philology". The profile of training is "Domestic Philology (Russian Language and Literature)". The form of education is full-time and part-time. Tyumen, 2011. 20 p.

The work program was drawn up in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of the Higher Professional Education, taking into account the recommendations and the ProOP of the Higher Professional Education in the direction and profile of training.

RESPONSIBLE EDITOR: Head of the Russian Language Department of Tyumen State University Doctor of Philology, Associate Professor

1. EXPLANATORY NOTE

1.1. Goals and objectives of the discipline

common goal discipline is development in students personal qualities, as well as the formation of general cultural (universal) and professional competencies in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education in the direction of preparation 032700.62 "Philology". The profile of training is "Domestic Philology (Russian Language and Literature)".

Purpose of the discipline- assimilation by students of active language changes that occurred at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries.

The tasks of studying the discipline:

1) to form an idea about the sociological study of the language, about the linguistic and extralinguistic reasons for the emergence of active trends in the development of the language;

2) to give an idea of the laws of development of the language and its norms, to develop students' ability to use language norms;

3) to develop students' ability to analyze modern journalistic and literary texts, to see in them the reflection of the main language trends in the field of pronunciation, in vocabulary, word formation, morphology, syntax;

4) to teach future philologists to respond to the requirements of the context, to correctly navigate when choosing one or another language variant;

5) develop the ability to distinguish systemic changes from speech errors.

1.2. The place of the discipline in the structure of the BEP of the undergraduate degree

Teaching the discipline of the professional cycle B.3. (variable part) is provided for in the sixth semester, when students can apply the knowledge, skills and competencies they received at the university as a result of studying the disciplines "Introduction to linguistics", "Introduction to the theory of communication", "Introduction to special philology", "Modern Russian language ”, “Fundamentals of Philology”.

The study of the discipline is necessary as a precursor to the study of the courses "Theory of Literature", "General Linguistics", "Rhetoric", "Philological Analysis of the Text", "The Artistic World of the Writer".

1.3. Competences of a bachelor's BEP graduate, formed as a result of mastering this BEP HPE.

As a result of mastering the BEP of the bachelor's degree, the graduate should have the following competencies:

a) general cultural:

possession of a culture of thinking; the ability to perceive, analyze, generalize information, set a goal and choose ways to achieve it (OK-1);

knowledge of the norms of the Russian literary language, skills in the practical use of the system functional styles speech; the ability to create and edit texts for professional purposes in Russian (OK-2);

awareness of the social significance of their profession, high motivation for professional activity (OK-8);

b) professional:

general professional:

the ability to demonstrate knowledge of the main provisions and concepts in the field of theory and history of the main studied language (languages) and literature (literatures), communication theory, philological analysis and text interpretation, understanding of the history, current state and prospects for the development of philology (PC-1);

mastering the basic skills of collecting and analyzing linguistic and literary facts using traditional methods and modern information technologies (PC-2);

fluency in the main language being studied in its literary form (PC-3);

possession of the basic methods and techniques of various types of oral and written communication in the main language being studied (PC-4);

the ability to apply the acquired knowledge in the field of theory and history of the main studied language (languages) and literature (literatures), communication theory, philological analysis and text interpretation in their own research activities (PC-5);

the ability to conduct local research under scientific supervision based on existing methods in a specific narrow area of philological knowledge with the formulation of reasoned conclusions and conclusions (PC-6);

mastering the skills of preparing scientific reviews, annotations, compiling abstracts and bibliographies on the subject of ongoing research, methods of bibliographic description; knowledge of the main bibliographic sources and search engines (PC-7);

possession of the skills of participation in scientific discussions, presentations with messages and reports, oral, written and virtual (posting in information networks) presentation of materials of one's own research (PC-8);

in applied activity:

possession of basic skills for refining and processing (for example, proofreading, editing, commenting, summarizing) of various types of texts (PC-13);

possession of the skills to participate in the development and implementation of various types of projects in educational and cultural institutions, in social and pedagogical, humanitarian and organizational, book publishing, mass media and communication areas(PK-15)

As a result of mastering the discipline, the student must:

know the systemic organization of the language at the phonetic, lexical, word-formation, grammatical (morphological and syntactic) levels, the norms of the modern Russian literary language and their specifics in the language of the media, the patterns of creation and perception of texts of various functional and stylistic orientations, ways of transmitting pragmatic (evaluative ), factual and aesthetic information, strategies and tactics of speech communication, principles and methods of linguistic research, to have an idea of the current state of the language;

· to be able to apply adequate linguistic terminology when characterizing the linguistic features of the text and its units depending on the extralinguistic situation, to apply the acquired knowledge in the field of the theory of the Russian language in their own professional activities, to make a choice of linguistic means, taking into account the dynamics of the norms of the modern literary language;

· be fluent in the Russian language in its literary form, the main methods and techniques of various types of oral and written communication in Russian, ways of effectively using speech means in the functions of communication, communication or influence, methods of analyzing the communicative and stylistic structure of the text, ways and means of increasing it influencing potential in the language of the media.

2. STRUCTURE AND LABOR INTENSITY OF THE DISCIPLINE

preparation of projects, presentations

written practical task

preparation of materials for analysis of situations

(technology RKMChP)

preparation of materials for solving the case

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Table 3

Planning for independent work of students

Topic number	Types of SRS	Semester week	Watch Volume	Number of points
obligatory	additional
Module 1
	written practical task (text analysis)	written practical task (to illustrate with specific examples the influence of extralinguistic factors on modern speech)
	abstract on the topic
	preparation of materials for the lesson on the technology "Development of critical thinking through reading and writing"
Total modulo 1:
Module 2
	abstract on the topic	written practical task (exercise)
	preparation of the project "Functioning of phraseological units in the media and modern literary texts"
	abstract on the topic, test work "Analysis of word-formation innovations in modern artistic and journalistic texts"	written practical task (exercise)
	test execution
Total modulo 2:
Module3
	abstract on the topic, preparation for a terminological blitz survey	written practical task (exercise)
	abstract on the topic, home test "Comprehensive text analysis", preparation of materials for solving the case
Total modulo 3:
TOTAL:

4. sections of the discipline and interdisciplinary links with the provided (subsequent) disciplines

	Name of the provided (subsequent) disciplines	Subjects of the discipline necessary for the study of the provided (subsequent) disciplines

	General linguistics
	Literary theory
	Rhetoric
	Philological text analysis
	The artistic world of the writer

Module 1

Topic 1. Principles of the sociological study of language. Conditions for the functioning of the modern Russian language

Content: Sociological level of language learning. Reflection in the language of social development. Main principle sociological study of the language - taking into account internal patterns in the development of the language and external, social factors. Interaction of internal laws of language and modern social factors. Changes in the conditions of the functioning of the language: the popularity of means mass media and their influence on everyday speech, expanding the scope of spontaneous communication, changing situations and genres of communication, increasing the personal beginning in speech, changing attitudes towards the literary norm. The main external factors in the development of the modern language: a change in the circle of native speakers, the creation of a new statehood, a reassessment of values, expanding contacts with foreign countries, the development of science and technology, the spread of the Internet, etc. Self-regulation of language changes. The influence of psycholinguistic factors on the features of the language of the modern era and on the speech behavior of our contemporary.

Basic concepts of the topic: law of language, social factor, language changes.

Topic 2. Active processes in the field of pronunciation and stress

Content: Changes in pronunciation: strengthening of letter pronunciation, phonetic adaptation of foreign words, leveling of pronunciation in social terms. Changes in the area of stress: a tendency to rhythmic balance, stress in borrowed words. Accent changes characteristic of separate parts speech: verbal and nominal stress. Sociolinguistic study of pronunciation norms.

Basic concepts of the topic: letter (graphic) pronunciation, rhythmic balance, verbal and nominal stress.

Topic 3. Main trends in modern Russian spelling

Content: Influence of social factors on deviations from orthographic norms. Activation of forms not provided for by the laws of Russian spelling (okay, rock and roll, etc.). Color and font selection of various segments of the word (text creolization). The trend towards the return of elements of the old (pre-reform) orthography. Occasional adhesions. Spelling development of borrowings, double spellings. Interleaving Cyrillic with Latin. Cyrillic writing of foreign words. Introduction to the text of non-linguistic elements proper.

Basic concepts of the topic: creolization, occasional fusion, double spellings.

Module 2

Topic 4. Active processes in vocabulary

Content: Changing the status of the literary language in modern conditions: changes in the lexical composition. External and internal factors in the development of the lexical system. The impact of socio-political processes on lexical transformations. The main lexical processes: the emergence of new words, the abandonment of the use of obsolete words, the return of previously irrelevant lexemes, the reassessment of a certain range of words, foreign borrowings, the growth of slang vocabulary. Semantic processes in vocabulary: expansion of the meaning of the word, narrowing of the meaning, rethinking. Stylistic transformations: stylistic neutralization and stylistic redistribution. Desemantization of terms. Terms of science and technology in the general literary language. Modern foreign borrowings, reasons for borrowing. Spelling fixation of foreign words. Computer language. Non-literary vocabulary in the language of modern press. Extralinguistic reasons for the transition of slang vocabulary into the national language. Differentiation of the terms jargon, slang, slang.

Basic concepts of the topic: lexical composition, lexical processes, expansion of meaning, narrowing of meaning, rethinking, neutralization, stylistic redistribution, desemantization (determinologization), computer language, non-literary vocabulary, jargon.

Topic 5. Active processes in word formation

Content: Relationship between social and intralinguistic processes in word formation. New in Russian word formation. Active ways of word formation. Specialization of the meanings of derivational models and morphemes (suffixes). Terminological formations. Changes in the meanings of suffixes. The growth of agglutinative features in the structure of the derived word: the weakening of the alternation at the junction of morphemes, the imposition of morphemes, interfixation. Key words of the era as the basis of word production. Using proper names as fundamentals. Production of common nouns with the meaning of person. Formation of names of processes and abstract nouns. Production of item names. Crossed word formation. Abbreviation as an active way of word formation and as a means of expression. Growth of nominal prefixation. Activation of some prefixes that were unproductive in the past (post-, after-; de-, times-, counter-, anti-; pro-; pseudo-, quasi-; under-, semi-; inter-, trans-; super-, above-). Prefixation of foreign verbs. Irregular word formation.

Basic concepts of the topic: active ways word formation, agglutination, interstepped word formation, abbreviation, prefixation, non-usual (occasional) word formation.

Topic 6. Active processes in morphology

Content: The growth of analyticism in morphology: the reduction in the number of cases, the growth of the class of indeclinable names, the growth of the class of nouns of the general gender, the change in the way of indicating collectiveness in nouns. Changes in the use of grammatical forms of gender, number, case. Changes in verb forms: fluctuations in the past tense forms of verbs with the suffix - well-, the transition of verbs from non-productive classes to productive ones. Changes in the forms of adjectives: preference for forms of a simple comparative degree with phonetic reduction, the desire to truncate the short form of adjectives na-en.

Basic concepts of the topic: analyticism, indeclinable names, common gender, collectiveness, classes of verbs, degrees of comparison.

Module 3

Topic 7. Active processes in syntax

Content: Syntactic changes. Influence of social factors on syntactic changes. Activation of colloquial syntactic constructions. Dissected and segmented structures. Predicative complexity of sentences. Activation of inconsistent and uncontrollable forms, weakening of the syntactic connection of word forms. The growth of prepositional combinations. Syntactic compression and syntactic reduction.

Basic concepts of the topic: colloquial syntactic constructions, dissected and segmented constructions, predicative complexity, inconsistent and uncontrollable forms, weakening of syntactic connection, prepositional combinations, syntactic compression and reduction.

Topic 8. Main trends in modern Russian punctuation

Basic concepts of the topic: punctuation, punctuation.

6. PLANS OF LABORATORY LESSONS

Module 1

Lesson 1 (on topic 1.1). Principles of the sociological study of language. Conditions for the functioning of the modern Russian language Phonetic transcription

Issues for discussion:

1. The concept of the modern Russian language. Views on the chronological framework.

2. Sociolinguistic study of language: specifics, principles, methods and techniques.

3. Extralinguistic factors affecting the functioning of the modern Russian language.

1. Determine what chronological framework of the modern Russian language is presented in the school course of the Russian language, in the university course of the modern Russian language, in the course of practical and functional style. Justify your answer. What period does the course "Active processes in modern Russian" cover?

2. Read two texts. Determine in which of them the actual linguistic approach to language learning is implemented, and in which the sociolinguistic approach is implemented. Justify your answer.

Text 1.

The most notable of the changes taking place in the language is the emergence of new words and - a little less striking - the emergence of new meanings. Try not to notice the new word! As I have already said, the eye immediately stumbles about it, it simply interferes with understanding the text and requires explanations, and at the same time, some special attraction is often hidden in new words, the charm of something secret, alien. But where do new words and new meanings come from in the language?

Somehow it is considered that the Russian language, if it lacks some important word, simply borrows it from another language, primarily from English. Well, for example, in the field of computers and the Internet, it would seem that this is the only thing that happens. Words computer, monitor, printer, processor, site, blog and many others are borrowed from English. However, this is a delusion, more precisely, it is not quite so, or at least not always so. This can be shown by an example of a kindIT- menagerie. The names of three animals - a mouse, a dog and a hamster - acquired new "computer" meanings, and in completely different ways (M. Krongauz).

Text 2.

In different historical periods (common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper), words from other languages penetrated into the original Russian language. This was due to the fact that the Russian people entered into economic, cultural, political relations with other nations, repelled military attacks, entered into military alliances, etc. However, in general, according to researchers, language borrowings in Russian vocabulary make up a relatively small percentage .

Two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) from Slavic languages (i.e. related) and 2) from non-Slavic languages. The first type includes borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language, as well as other Slavic languages (for example, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Bulgarian, Czech, etc.). The second type includes borrowings from Greek, Latin, as well as Turkic, Iranian, Scandinavian, Western European (Romance, Germanic, etc.), in addition, numerous, constantly replenished borrowings from the languages of the peoples of all the republics of the former Soviet Union ().

3. On the example of this text, show how the actual linguistic and sociological approaches to the study of linguistic phenomena are implemented.

Many people love puzzles.

Maybe you are one of them. Maybe even in the dictionary there is one of these strange-sounding words ending in "yak" or "man", which means a lover of puzzles.

So, if you are a puzzle lover, then you will love this puzzle. It's called "The Mystery of the Nine Points". It shows how we always strive to put ourselves in a rigid framework, although this is often not necessary at all. And it demonstrates how we impose rules on ourselves that are not at all imposed on us by this problem - we simply imagine that these rules are imposed on us (A. and B. Pease).

4. Illustrate with specific examples the influence of extralinguistic factors on modern speech.

Lesson 2 (on topic 1.2). Active processes in the field of pronunciation and stress

Issues for discussion:

1. Major trends in pronunciation and stress.

2. Sociolinguistic study of pronunciation norms.

Tasks to be completed in class:

1. Write down examples from modern speech. Determine which option is the original (normative) in each case. Indicate what trends in stress and pronunciation these examples show.

Gathered, introduced, beatles, statutory, north, container, rain, genies, cost, carried out, conveyor, cable, contractual.

2. View the information program recording. Note the phonetic features of the speaker's speech.

Lesson 3 (on topic 1.3). Main trends in modern Russian orthography

Issues for discussion:

1. Reasons for deviation from orthographic norms (proper linguistic and extralinguistic).

2. Basic methods of text creolization.

Tasks to be completed in class:

1. Determine the reasons for the deviation from spelling norms in the following examples (examples are given by the teacher).

2. Read an excerpt from the book by M. Krongauz “The Russian language is on the verge of nervous breakdown"(M., 2008. S. 133-136). Determine which methods of text creolization are used in the examples given by the author. Do you agree with the author's opinion about the appropriateness or inadmissibility of such innovations?

Module 2

Lesson 4 (on topic 2.4). Active processes in vocabulary

Issues for discussion:

1. Basic lexical processes.

2. Semantic processes.

3. Stylistic transformations.

Tasks to be completed in class:

1. Analyze the ways and means of expressing active lexical processes, semantic and stylistic transformations in the proposed text ( ).

2. View a fragment of the film "Love me". Write down the foreign borrowings used in the speech of the characters. Determine the functions of borrowed words.

4. View episodes from N. Mikhalkov's film "12". Give speech characteristics to the characters. What social characteristics of the hero can be discussed based on the lexical features of his speech?

Lesson 5 (on topic 2.5). Active processes in phraseology

Issues for discussion:

1. Spheres of distribution and emergence of new phraseology. The ways of its occurrence.

2. Functions of phraseological units in journalistic texts.

3. The use of phraseological units in speech. Methods of phraseological innovation.

Tasks to be completed in class:

1. Presentation of student projects "Functioning of phraseological units in the media and modern literary texts"

Lesson 6 (on topic 2.6). Active processes in word formation

Issues for discussion:

1. Actually linguistic and extralinguistic causes of active derivational processes.

2. Productive word-building types.

3. Interstepped word formation.

4. Formation of expressive names.

5. Production of occasionalisms.

Tasks to be completed in class:

1. Analyze what are the features of the reflection in the proposed text of active word-formation processes ( the text is offered by the teacher).

2. Execution control work on the analysis of active word-formation processes ( on the material of the text proposed by the teacher).

Nina Sergeevna Valgina

N.S. Valgina Active processes in modern Russian From the publisher. A textbook for university students. For the first time, a holistic concept of active processes in the Russian language is given, based on the study of oral and writing in various areas of society. The active processes in the Russian language at the end of the 20th century are highlighted. - in pronunciation and stress, in vocabulary and phraseology, in word formation and morphology, in syntax and punctuation. Language changes are considered taking into account the internal sources of language development against the background of historical transformations in the life of society. Language variance is widely represented in its relation to the literary norm. Particular attention is paid to the vocabulary of the media as the most obvious source of changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language. For students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas and specialties of "Philology", "Linguistics", "Journalism", editing". It is of interest to linguists, philosophers, culturologists, press workers, literary critics, teachers and teachers, as well as a wide range of readers. Contents of the book:PrefacePrinciples of the sociological study of languageLaws of language developmentVariance of a linguistic sign (The concept of variance and its origins. Classification of variants)Language norm (The concept of norm and its features. Norm and occasionalism. General language and situational norm. Motivated deviations from the norm. The main processes in the normalization of linguistic phenomena ) Changes in Russian pronunciation Active processes in the area of stress Active processes in vocabulary and phraseology (Basic lexical processes. Semantic processes in vocabulary. Stylistic transformations in vocabulary. Determinologization. Foreign borrowings. Computer language. Foreign language lexemes in Russian vernacular. Non-literary vocabulary in the language of modern press) Active processes in word formation (Growth of agglutinative features in the process of word formation. The most productive word-formation types. Production of names of persons. Abstract names and names of processes. Prefix formations and compound words. Specialization of word-building means. Abbreviation Expressive names Occasional words Active processes in morphology Dismemberment and segmentation of syntactic constructions Attaching members and parcel constructions Two-term constructions Predicative complexity of the sentence Activation of inconsistent and uncontrollable word forms Growth of prepositional combinations Tendency to the semantic accuracy of the utterance Syntactic compression and syntactic reduction. The weakening of the syntactic connection. The ratio of affective and intellectual in the field of syntax)Some trends in modern Russian punctuation (Point. Semicolon. Colon. Dash. Ellipsis. Functional-targeted use of punctuation. Non-regulated punctuation. Author's punctuation) Conclusion Literature Sample program of the discipline "Active processes in modern Russian"

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N.S. Valgina Active processes in the modern Russian language Approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in philological areas and specialties Moscow "Logos" 2003 AVTOR SKANA: ewgeni23 [email protected] AVTOR SKANA: ewgeni23 [email protected] UDC811.161.1 BBK81.2Rus-923 B15 Reviewers: professors, doctors of philological sciences ST. Antonova and N.D. Burvikova B15 Valgina N.S. Active processes in modern Russian: A textbook for university students. - M.: Logos, 2003. - 304 p. ISBN 5-94010-092-9 For the first time, a holistic concept of active processes in the Russian language is given, based on the study of oral and written speech in various spheres of society. The active processes in the Russian language at the end of the 20th century are highlighted. - in pronunciation and stress, in vocabulary and phraseology, in word formation and morphology, in syntax and punctuation. Language changes are considered taking into account the internal sources of language development against the background of historical transformations in the life of society. Language variance is widely represented in its relation to the literary norm. Particular attention is paid to the vocabulary of the mass media as the most obvious source of changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language. For students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas and specialties of "Philology", "Linguistics", "Journalism", "Book Business", "Publishing Editing". It is of interest to linguists, philosophers, culturologists, press workers, literary critics, teachers and teachers, as well as a wide range of readers. BBK81.2Rus-923 ISBN 5-94010-092-9 © Valgina N.S., 2001 © "Logos", 2003 FOREWORD the purpose of developing assessments and recommendations from the standpoint of objectivity and historical expediency. The dynamics of language development is so tangible that it leaves no one indifferent either among the linguistic community, or among journalists and publicists, or among ordinary citizens who are not professionally connected with the language. The media provide a truly impressive picture of language use, which causes conflicting judgments and assessments of what is happening. Some scrupulously collect gross errors in speech, focusing on the traditional literary norm of the past; others - welcome and unconditionally accept "verbal freedom", rejecting any restrictions in the use of the language - up to the admissibility of printed use in the language of rude vernacular, jargon and obscene words and expressions. The public concern about the fate of the language, although it has serious grounds, does not take into account that they lie somewhat apart from the actual linguistic essence. Indeed, the style of modern media causes anxiety and concern. However, this often equates between real dynamic processes in the language itself, in particular, in the heavy growth of variant forms and the avalanche growth of word-forming types and models, and phenomena explained by the insufficient culture of oral and written public speech. The latter has a completely realistic justification: the democratization of society has enormously expanded the circle of public speakers - in parliament, in the press, at rallies and in other areas of mass communication. Freedom of speech, understood literally and in relation to the manner of expression, broke all social and ethical prohibitions and canons. But this is another problem - the problem of the culture of speech, the problem of the ethics of public speaking, and finally, the problem of language education. In this sense, we really lost a lot, at least the practice of editing and polishing "the printed and sounding word. But, on the other hand, it is obvious that the literary smoothed "reading of the written text" in the past could not serve as an exemplary manifestation of the culture of speech according to of its essence. Lively, spontaneously uttered speech attracts more, but it, of course, is fraught with many surprises. Thus, when discussing the state of the Russian language today, it is necessary to distinguish between questions of the proper language and questions of speech practice, questions of the linguistic taste of the historical moment. Language and time is the eternal problem of researchers. Language lives in time (meaning not abstract time, but the society of a certain era), but time is also reflected in language. Language changes. This evolutionary quality is inherent in itself. But how does it change? It is hardly legitimate to consider that he is constantly and steadily improving. Evaluations of "good" or "bad" are inappropriate here. There is too much subjectivity in them. For example, contemporaries of A.S. Pushkin did not like much, very much in his linguistic innovations. However, it was they who later turned out to be the most promising and productive (let us recall, for example, the attacks on the language of Ruslan and Lyudmila, up to its complete rejection). The modern science of language, when characterizing changes in it “for the better”, prefers to use the principle of expediency. In this case, the functional-pragmatic essence of the language is taken into account, and not an abstract and separately existing code model. Such a clear quality of the modern language as the increasing variability of linguistic signs can be perceived as a positive phenomenon, since it provides users of the language with the opportunity to choose, which, in turn, indicates an expansion of the possibilities of the language in terms of meeting specific communicative tasks. This means that the language becomes more mobile, subtly responsive to the situation of communication, i.e. the style of the language is enriched. And this adds something to the resources already available in the language and expands its capabilities. Despite the fact that the language of modern media often makes a negative impression due to the misunderstood thesis about freedom of speech, it must be admitted that the modern Russian language, due to the prevailing historical circumstances, today draws resources to update the literary norm right here - in the media, V colloquial speech, although for a long time such a source was fiction, it is not without reason that a normalized language is called precisely a literary language (according to M. Gorky - processed by masters of the word). The change in the sources of the formation of the literary norm also explains the loss of the former rigidity and unambiguity by the norm. Such a phenomenon in the modern language as the variance of the norm is not a sign of its loosening and loss of stability, but an indicator of the flexibility and expedient adaptability of the norm to the life situation of communication. Life has changed a lot. And not only the idea of the inviolability of the literary model in establishing the norm. The speech behavior of representatives of modern society has changed, the speech stereotypes of the past have been eliminated, the language of the press has become more natural and vital; the style of mass printing has changed - there is more irony and sarcasm, and this awakens and develops subtle nuances in the word. But at the same time and side by side - linguistic vulgarity and the nakedness of the direct, rough meaning of the tabulated word. The picture is contradictory and ambiguous, requiring careful analysis and painstaking, long-term work on the education of linguistic taste. An interesting thought was expressed by I. Volgin back in 1993 (Lit. Gazeta, August 25), quoting I. Brodsky: “Only if we decide that it is time for sapiens to stop its development, should literature speak the language of the people. Otherwise, the people should speak the language of literature.” As for the “non-normative literature” that has so flooded our modern press, then for its own good it is better for it to remain marginal, fundamentally non-bookish, inexpressible in the written word (I. Volgin’s advice). “There is no need to artificially pull out this fragile object from natural environment habitat - from the elements of oral speech, where he is only able to carry out his cultural mission. And further: “This outstanding national phenomenon deserves to live an independent life. Cultural integration is deadly for him.” It must be said that the general decline in the style of the mass press, the loss of literary purity and stylistic "highness" to a certain extent removes the neutrality in the assessment of events. Stylistic illegibility, as a protest against the pathos and window dressing of past times, gives rise at the same time to stylistic deafness and loss of a sense of language. However, it is not our task to analyze the language of the mass press as such. These materials are used only as an illustration of their own processes in the language, since this area of application of the language most quickly responds to new phenomena in the language, in a certain sense updates them. The manual does not set a task and a normalization plan. This requires huge statistical data and an end-to-end analysis of modern texts and sounding speech. Even the actors of the collective monograph "The Russian Language of the End of the 20th Century", prepared at the Institute of the Russian Language Russian Academy Sciences, officially declare that they are not normalizers. The purpose of the manual is to acquaint you with important patterns in the modern language, with the sprouts of the new in it; help to see this new and correlate it with the internal processes in the language; help to establish links between the self-development of the language and the changes that stimulate it in real life modern society. Private assessments of linguistic facts and the corresponding recommendations can help to understand the complex "language economy" of our time and, possibly, influence the development of a sense of language. The manual focuses on a conscious, thoughtful attitude to the processes in the language, on the perception of the language as a dynamic, functionally developed system. The description of the material provides for knowledge of the multi-level system of the Russian language and its modern style and stylistic differentiation. Principles of CO-POLOGICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE Language, which is actively and daily used by society as a means of communication, lives and develops. Diachronically, this is revealed through the replacement of some linguistic signs with others (obsolete ones are replaced by new ones), synchronously - through the struggle of variants that coexist and claim to be normative. The life of the language is carried out in a society that creates conditions for certain changes and stimulates language processes that lead to the satisfaction of the needs of society. However, the processes of self-development are also characteristic of the language, since the signs of the language (morphemes, words, constructions) are systemically connected and react to changes in their own “organism”. Specific language units have varying degrees of stability and viability. Some live for centuries, others are more mobile and show an active need for change, adaptation to the needs of changing communication. Changes in the language are possible due to the potentialities inherent in it of an internal nature, which are revealed under the influence of an external, social “push”. Consequently, the internal laws of language development can “keep silent” for the time being, waiting for an external stimulus that will set in motion the entire system or its individual links. For example, the intrasystemic quality of nouns of a common grammatical gender (such as an orphan, a bully, a sweetheart, a slob), explained by the asymmetry of a linguistic sign (one form - two meanings), suggests a double agreement: masculine and feminine. By analogy with such nouns, under the influence of the social factor, other classes of names acquired the same ability: good doctor, good vran; the director came, the director came. Such a correlation of forms was impossible when the corresponding professions and positions were predominantly male. The interaction of external and internal factors is the main law in the development of the language, and without taking into account this interaction, the study of the language in the sociological aspect has no prospects. In the process of the formation of a new quality, external and internal factors can manifest themselves with different strengths, and the unevenness of their interaction is usually found in the fact that the stimulating force of the influence of an external, social factor either activates internal processes in the language, or, conversely, slows them down. The reasons for both are rooted in the changes that society itself undergoes, the native speaker. The increased pace of linguistic dynamics in the 1990s is primarily due to the changing composition and shape of Russian society, the change in social, political, economic, and psychological attitudes. Renewal in the language, especially in its literary form, is proceeding very actively and tangibly today. Traditional normativity, previously supported by samples of classical fiction, is clearly being destroyed. And the new norm, freer and at the same time less definite and unambiguous, is under the influence of the mass press. Television, radio, periodicals, and mass culture in general are increasingly becoming "trendsetters", "educators" of a new linguistic taste. Unfortunately, the taste is not always high class. However, these processes cannot be ignored, they contain the objective needs of a new society, a new generation - more relaxed, more technically educated, more in contact with speakers of other languages. Against this background, the importance of the social factor in language processes increases, but this also removes some inhibition in the manifestation of internal patterns in the language, and, as a result, the entire mechanism of the language begins to work in an accelerated high-speed mode. Due to the emergence of new language units (the development of technology, science, contacts between languages), the expansion of the range of variant forms, as well as stylistic movements within the language, the old norm loses its inviolability. The problem of the interaction of external and internal factors in the development of the language has repeatedly interested researchers, both in a broad staging-theoretical plan, and when considering linguistic particularities. For example, the operation of the general law of speech economy for our time is directly related to the acceleration of the pace of life. This process has been repeatedly noted in the literature as an active process of the 20th century. The work of V.K. Zhuravlev, the title of which directly indicates the noted interaction. The connection between the social and intralinguistic can be seen at any level of linguistic expression, although, naturally, vocabulary provides the most obvious and extensive material. Here, even particulars can serve as an illustration of this connection. For example, in the Eskimo language, as V.M. Leichikg, there are about a hundred names of shades of snow color, which could hardly be relevant for the languages of the inhabitants of the southern regions, and in the Kazakh language there are several dozen names of horse colors 3 . Social, and sometimes even purely political reasons can be important for various naming and renaming of cities and streets. The development of science, technology, contacts with other languages - all these external reasons for the language affect language processes, especially in terms of expanding the vocabulary and clarifying or changing the meaning of lexical units. Obviously, the influence of the social factor on changes in the language is active and noticeable in the most dynamic periods of society, associated with significant transformations in various spheres of life. Although technological progress does not lead to the creation of a fundamentally new language, however, it significantly increases the terminological fund, which, in turn, enriches the general literary vocabulary through determinologization. It is known, in particular, that the development of electronics alone led to the appearance of 60,000 items, while in chemistry, according to experts, about five million nomenclature-terminological items are used 4 . For comparison: in the latest editions of the dictionary by S. I. Ozhegov5, 72,500 words and 80,000 words and phraseological expressions are recorded. The sociological study of the language involves the disclosure of problems related to the social nature of the language, the mechanism of the influence of social factors on the language and its role in society. Therefore, causal links between language and the facts of social life are important. At the same time, the question of the social differentiation of the language is brought to the forefront with the indispensable consideration when registering the linguistic phenomena of the speech situation. In general terms, sociolinguistics aims to answer mutually directed questions: how the history of society generates language changes and how social development is reflected in the language. Zhuravlev V.K. Interaction of external and internal factors of language development. - M, 1982. 2 Leichik V.M. People and words. - M., 1982. S. 7. 3 Ibid. * Vasiliev NL. How many words in Russian // Russian speech. 1999. No. 4. P. 119. Ozhegov SI., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1995, 1998. The sociological aspect in language learning becomes especially fruitful if research is not limited to collecting linguistic facts (empirical level), but reaches theoretical generalizations and explanations, the latter is possible only when taking into account the interaction of internal and external factors in the development of the language, as well as its systemic nature. It is known that exaggeration of the importance of the social factor can lead to vulgar sociologism, which was observed in the history of Russian philology (for example, the “New Teaching about Language” by Academician N.Ya. Marr in the 30s and 40s of the XX century, which was then announced the last word in "Marxist linguistics"), when the language was completely "denied" in self-development and was assigned the role of a registrar of the change in social formations. Another extreme in the approach to linguistic changes is attention only to individual particulars that have arisen under the influence of a new social reality. In this case, the proposition that linguistic particulars are the links of the system is forgotten, and therefore changes in a particular, separate link can set the entire system in motion. If we discard both extremes, then it remains necessary to recognize as the basic principles of the sociological study of language - taking into account the interaction of external and internal factors and the systemic nature of the language. At the same time, it is important to note that the language system is dynamic, not rigid, it is characterized by the coexistence of the old and the new, the stable and the mobile, which ensures the gradual accumulation of a new quality, the absence of fundamental, revolutionary changes. Language is characterized not only by the desire for improvement (improvement in general is a relative concept here), but by the desire for convenient and expedient forms of expression. Language seems to feel for these forms, and therefore it needs a choice, which is provided by the presence of transitional linguistic cases, peripheral phenomena, and variant forms. For sociolinguistics, the problem of social differentiation of language is important, which has a two-dimensional structure: on the one hand, it is due to the heterogeneity of the social structure itself (reflection in the language of the characteristics of speech of different social groups of society), on the other hand, it reflects the diversity of social situations themselves that leave an imprint on speech behavior representatives of different social groups in similar circumstances. The concept of a language situation is defined as a set of forms of existence of a language that serve communication in a particular ethnic community or administrative-territorial association1. Moreover, special attention is paid to situations that reflect different areas of communication and speech behavior of different social groups in different areas of communication. Sociolinguistics is also interested in the question of the interaction of language and culture. "Processes of contact different cultures are reflected in lexical borrowings. In any case, sociological research takes into account the ratio of "language and society". At the same time, society can be represented both as an integral ethnic group, and as a separate social group in this aggregate. The range of problems of sociolinguistics also includes the problem of language policy, which primarily consists in taking measures to ensure the preservation of old language norms or the introduction of new ones. Consequently, the question of the literary norm, its variants and deviations from the norm is also within the competence of sociolinguistics. At the same time, the very fact of establishing the social basis of the norm, which depends on which social strata of society are the most active in the historical process of forming the literary norm, turns out to be important. This may be a norm cultivated by the social elite of society or its democratic strata. Everything depends on a certain historical moment in the life of society. Therefore, the norm can be extremely rigid, strictly oriented to tradition, and, in another case, deviating from tradition, accepting former non-literary language means, i.e. the norm is a socio-historical and dynamic concept, capable of qualitatively changing within the framework of the capabilities of the language system. In this sense, a norm can be defined as a realized possibility of a language. The change in the norm is determined both by external (social) factors and by internal trends in the development of the language on the way of its movement towards acquiring greater expediency by means of expression. For sociolinguistics, the statistical method is important. It helps to establish the degree of dissemination and, consequently, the assimilation of a linguistic phenomenon. However, this method, taken separately, does not have an indisputable objective significance based on the results of its application. The widespread occurrence of a phenomenon is not always an indicator of its vital necessity and “good luck” for the language. More important are its systemic qualities, which contribute to the development of more expedient and convenient means of expression. The development of such means is a constant process in the language, and it is carried out due to the action of specific linguistic laws. 1 Russian language: Encyclopedia. - M., 1997. S. 523. Ibid. LAWS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Serving society as a means of communication, language is constantly undergoing changes, more and more accumulating its resources to adequately express the meaning of the changes taking place in society. For a living language, this process is natural and logical. However, the degree of intensity of this process can be different. And there is an objective reason for this: society itself - the bearer and creator of the language - experiences different periods of its existence in different ways. During periods of sharp breakage of established stereotypes, the processes of linguistic transformations also intensify. This was the case at the beginning of the 20th century, when the economic, political and social structure of Russian society changed dramatically. Under the influence of these changes, the psychological type of the representative of the new society also changes, although more slowly, which also acquires the character of an objective factor influencing the processes in the language. The modern era has actualized many processes in the language, which in other conditions could be less noticeable, smoother. The social revolution does not make a revolution in the language as such, but actively influences the speech practice of a contemporary, revealing linguistic possibilities, bringing them to the surface. Under the influence of an external social factor, the internal resources of the language come into play, developed by intra-system relations, which were not previously in demand for various reasons, including again for socio-political reasons. So, for example, semantic and semantic-stylistic transformations were discovered in many lexical layers of the Russian language, in grammatical forms, etc. In general, linguistic changes are carried out with the interaction of external and internal causes. Moreover, the basis for changes is laid in the language itself, where internal patterns operate, the reason for which, their driving force , lies in the systematic nature of the language. But a kind of stimulator (or, conversely, "extinguisher") of these changes is an external factor - processes in the life of society. Language and society, as a user of the language, are inextricably linked, but at the same time they have their own, separate laws of life support. Thus, the life of a language, its history is organically connected with the history of society, but is not completely subordinate to it because of its own systemic organization. Thus, in the language movement, processes of self-development collide with processes stimulated from outside. What are the internal laws of language development? Usually, internal laws include the law of systemicity (a global law, which is both a property, a quality of the language); the law of tradition, which usually restrains innovation processes; the law of analogy (a stimulant for undermining traditionality); the law of economy (or the law of “least effort”), which is especially actively focused on accelerating the pace in the life of society; the laws of contradictions (antinomies), which are in fact the "instigators" of the struggle of opposites inherent in the very system of language. Being inherent in the object (language) itself, antinomies, as it were, are preparing an explosion from within. The external factors involved in the accumulation of elements of a new quality by the language can be attributed to the following: a change in the circle of native speakers, the spread of education, territorial movements of the masses, the creation of a new statehood, the development of science, technology, international contacts, etc. This also includes the factor of the active action of the mass media (press, radio, television), as well as the factor of the socio-psychological restructuring of the personality in the conditions of the new statehood and, accordingly, the degree of its adaptation to new conditions. When considering the processes of self-regulation in a language that occur as a result of the action of internal laws, and taking into account the impact of external factors on these processes, it is necessary to observe a certain measure of the interaction of these factors: exaggeration of the action and significance of one (self-development) can lead to a separation of the language from the society that gave birth to it; the exaggeration of the role of the social factor (sometimes even with complete oblivion of the first one) leads to vulgar sociologism. The answer to the question of why the decisive (decisive, but not the only) factor in language development is the action of internal laws lies in the fact that language is a systemic formation. Language is not just a set, the sum of linguistic knowledge ed. E.A. Zemskaya. - M., 2000. S. 9. 13 kov (morphemes, words, phrases, etc.), but also the relationship between them, so a failure in one link of signs can set in motion not only adjacent links, but the entire chain as a whole (or a certain part of it). The law of consistency is found at different language levels (morphological, lexical, syntactic) and manifests itself both within each level and in their interaction with each other. For example, the reduction in the number of cases in Russian (six out of nine) led to an increase in analytical features in the syntactic structure of the language - the function of the case form began to be determined by the position of the word in the sentence, the relationship with other forms. A change in the semantics of a word can affect its syntactic links and even its form. And, conversely, a new syntactic compatibility can lead to a change in the meaning of the word (its expansion or narrowing). Often these processes are interdependent processes. For example, in modern use, the term "ecology" has significantly expanded its semantics due to the overgrown syntactic relations: ecology (from the Greek oikos - house, dwelling, location and ... ology) - the science of the relationship of plant and animal organisms and the communities they form between oneself and with the environment (BES. T. 2, M., 1991). Since the middle of the XX century. In connection with the increased impact of man on nature, ecology has become important as scientific basis rational nature management and protection of living organisms. At the end of the XX century. a section of ecology is being formed - human ecology (social ecology); accordingly, aspects of urban ecology, environmental ethics, etc. appear. In general, we can already talk about the greening of modern science. Environmental problems gave rise to socio-political movements (for example, the Greens, etc.). From the point of view of the language, there was an expansion of the semantic field, as a result of which another meaning (more abstract) appeared - "requiring protection". The latter is seen in new syntactic contexts: ecological culture, industrial ecology, greening of production, ecology of life, words, ecology of the spirit; ecological situation, ecological catastrophe, etc. In the last two cases, a new shade of meaning appears - "danger, trouble." Thus, a word with a special meaning becomes widely used, in which semantic transformations occur by expanding syntactic compatibility. Systemic relations are also revealed in a number of other cases, in particular, when choosing the forms of the predicate with nouns as subjects denoting positions, ranks, professions, etc. 14 For modern consciousness, let's say, the combination Doctor came sounds quite normal, although there is an obvious formal-grammatical inconsistency here. The form changes, focusing on the specific content (the doctor is a woman). By the way, in this case, along with semantic-syntactic transformations, the influence of the social factor can also be noted: the profession of a doctor in modern conditions is as widespread among women as among men, and the doctor-physician correlation is carried out at a different linguistic level - stylistic. Consistency as a property of the language and a separate sign in it, discovered by F. de Saussure, also shows deeper relationships, in particular the relationship between the sign (signifier) and the signified, which turned out to be not indifferent. The law of linguistic tradition, on the one hand, is presented as something lying on the surface, quite understandable and obvious. On the other hand, its action reveals a complex interweaving of external and internal stimuli that delay transformations in the language. The intelligibility of the law is explained by the objective desire of the language for stability, the “preservation” of what has already been achieved, acquired, but the potential of the language just as objectively acts in the direction of loosening this stability, and a breakthrough in the weak link of the system turns out to be quite natural. But then forces come into play that are not directly related to the language itself, but which can impose a kind of taboo on innovation. Such prohibitive measures come from linguistic specialists and special institutions that have the appropriate legal status; in dictionaries, manuals, reference books, official instructions, perceived as a social institution, there are indications of the eligibility or incompetence of the use of certain linguistic signs. There is, as it were, an artificial delay in the obvious process, the preservation of tradition in spite of the objective state of things. Take, for example, a textbook example with the widespread use of the verb call in the forms call, call instead of call, call. The rules preserve the tradition, cf .: fry - fry, boil - boil - boil, in the latter case (believe) the tradition is overcome (it was: Ravens are not fried, not varAt. - I. Krylov, "The oven pot is dearer to you: you are food in it you cook for yourself. - A. Pushkin), but in the verb to call, the tradition is stubbornly preserved, and not by the language, but by codifiers, "setters" of the literary norm. Such preservation of the tradition is justified by other, similar cases, for example, by preserving the traditional stress in verb forms include - include - chish, turn on, hand in - hand in, hand in (cf .: incorrect, unconventional use of forms will turn on, hand in the leading 15 TV shows “Results” and “Time”, although such an error has a certain basis - this is a general tendency to transfer stress in verbs on the root part: cook - cook, cook - "cook, cook; beckon - beckon, beckon -" beckon, beckon). that tradition can act selectively and not always motivated. Another example: two pairs of felt boots (boots) have not been spoken for a long time , boots (boots), boots (bot), stockings (stocking). But the shape of the socks is stubbornly preserved (and the shape of the socks is traditionally classified as colloquial). The tradition is especially protected by the rules of writing words. Compare, for example, numerous exceptions in the spelling of adverbs, adjectives, etc. The main criterion here is tradition. Why, for example, is it written separately from pantalik, although the rule says that adverbs formed from nouns that have disappeared from use are written together with prepositions (prefixes)? The answer is unintelligible - according to tradition, but tradition is a security certificate of a long-departed. Of course, the global destruction of tradition can seriously harm the language, deprive it of such necessary qualities as continuity, stability, and ultimately solidity. But partial periodic adjustment of estimates and recommendations is necessary. The law of tradition is good when it acts as a restraining principle, counteracting accidental, unmotivated use, or, finally, preventing the too extended action of other laws, in particular, the law of speech analogy (such as, for example, a dialectal path to creativity by analogy with life) . Among the traditional spellings, there are spellings that are highly conditional (for example, the ending of adjectives with the letter r in place of the phoneme<в>; writing adverbs with -6 (jump, backhand) and verb forms (write, read). This can also include the traditional spellings of feminine nouns such as night, rye, mouse, although in this case the law of morphological analogy is also included in the action, when -ь acts as a graphic equalizer of noun declension paradigms, cf .: night - at night, like a spruce - spruce, door - door1. The law of tradition often clashes with the law of analogy, creating in a sense conflict situation, the resolution of which in particular cases may turn out to be unpredictable: either tradition or analogy will win. The action of the law of linguistic analogy is manifested in the internal overcoming of linguistic anomalies, which is carried out in the reIvanov V.F. Modern Russian orthography: Uch. allowance. - M., 1991. 16 As a result of assimilation of one form of linguistic expression to another. In general terms, this is a powerful factor in linguistic evolution, since the result is some unification of forms, but, on the other hand, it can deprive the language of specific nuances of the semantic and grammatical plan. In such cases, the restraining principle of tradition can play a positive role. The essence of the likening of forms (analogy) lies in the alignment of forms, which is observed in pronunciation, in the accent design of words (in stress), and partly in grammar (for example, in verb control). Particularly subject to the law of analogy colloquial, while the literary one relies more on tradition, which is understandable, since the latter is more conservative in nature. At the phonetic level, the law of analogy manifests itself, for example, in the case when, instead of the historically expected sound, another sound appears in the word form, by analogy with other forms. For example, the development of the sound o after a soft consonant before a hard one in place of t (yat): star - stars (from star - star) by analogy with the forms of spring - spring. An analogy can be caused by the transition of verbs from one class to another, for example, by analogy with the forms of verbs such as read - read, throw - throw, the forms appeared rinse (instead of rinsing), waving (instead of waving), meowing (instead of meowing), etc. Especially an analogy is active in non-standardized colloquial and dialect speech (for example, the replacement of alternations: shore - shore instead of shore according to the model you carry - you carry, etc.). So vdet alignment of forms, pulling them up to more common patterns. The alignment of the system of stresses, in particular, is subject to some verb forms, where the book tradition and living use collide. For example, the feminine form of the past tense of the verb is quite stable; cf .: call - called, called, called, but: called; tear - tore, tore, tore, but: tore; sleep - slept, slept, slept, but: slept & \ come to life - bzhil, bzhilo, came to life, but: came to life. Naturally, the violation of tradition affected precisely the feminine form (called, vomited, slept, etc.), which is not yet allowed in the literary language, but is common in live use. , Many fluctuations in stress are observed in terminological vocabulary, where tradition (as a rule, these are Latin and Greek terms by origin) and practice of use in Russian contexts also often collide. Analogy in this class of words turned out to be extremely productive, and discrepancies - extremely rare. For example, most of the terms emphasize the final part, the basics, tilsk-arrhythmia, ischemia, AVTOR SKANA: ewgeni23 [email protected] hypertension, schizophrenia, idiocy, bestiality, endoscopy, dystrophy, diplopia, allergies, therapy, electrotherapy, endoscopy, asymmetry, etc. But the emphasis within the stem of the word on -graphil and -tion is firmly preserved: photography, fluorography, lithography, cinematography, monograph; pagination, inlay, indexing. In AA Grammar Dictionary. Zaliznyak, among 1000 words per -tion, only one word with a shifted accent was found - pharmacy (pharmacy^). However, in other cases, there is a different design of words depending on their word-formation composition, for example: heteronomy (Greek ndmos - law), heterophdnia (Greek phone - sound), heterogbmia (Greek gamos - marriage), but: heterostylia (Greek. stylos - pillar), heterophyllia (Greek phyllon - leaf), in the last two cases one can see a violation of tradition and, accordingly, an assimilation of pronunciation. By the way, in some terms. modern dictionaries fix a double stress, for example with the same component -fonil - diafbnia. The Latin term industria BES gives in two versions (industry), and the SI dictionary. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova notes the industry form as obsolete and recognizes the industry form as corresponding to the modern norm; double stress is also fixed in the words apoplexy and epilepsy, as in the mentioned word diaphnia, although a similar model of diachrony retains a single stress. Differences in the recommendations are also found regarding the word cooking. Most dictionaries consider cooking as a literary form, but in the edition of the SI dictionary. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova (1992) are already recognized as literary both options - cooking. Terms with the -manil component steadfastly retain the accent -mania (Anglomania, melomania, gallomania, bibliomania, megalomania, etheromania, gigantomania, etc.). Dictionary AA. Zaliznyaka gives 22 such words. However, in professional speech, sometimes under the influence of linguistic analogy, the emphasis shifts to the end of the word, for example, medical workers often pronounce drug addiction than drug addiction. The transfer of stress to the final basis is noted even in terms that steadfastly preserve the original stress, for example, mastopathy (cf. most of these terms: homeopathy, allopytia, myopathy, antipathy, metriopia, etc.). Often the difference in stress is due to different origins words - Latin or Greek: dyslalia (from dis ... and Greek lalia - speech), dyspepsia (from dis ... and gr. pepsis - digestion), dysplasia (from dis ... and gr. plasis - education) ; dispersion (from lat. dispersio - scattering), discussion (from lat. discussio - consideration). Thus, contradictory tendencies are observed in the terminological models of words: on the one hand, the preservation of traditional forms of words based on the etymology of word formation, and on the other hand, the desire for unification, likening of forms. The alignment of forms under the influence of the law of analogy can also be observed in grammar, for example, in the change of verbal and nominal control: for example, the control of the verb is affected by dates. n. (what, instead of what) arose by analogy with other verbs (to be amazed at what, to be surprised at what). Often such changes are assessed as erroneous, unacceptable in the literary language (for example, under the influence of the combination of faith in victory, an erroneous combination of confidence in victory arose instead of confidence in victory). Especially active in modern Russian is the law of speech economy (or economy of speech efforts). The desire for economy of linguistic expression is found at different levels of the language system - in vocabulary, word formation, morphology, syntax. The operation of this law explains, for example, the replacement of forms of the following type: Georgian from Georgian, Lezgin from Lezgin, Ossetian from Ossetian (but Bashkirian -?); the same is evidenced by the zero ending in genitive case plural for a number of word classes: five Georgians instead of Georgians; one hundred grams instead of one hundred grams; half a kilo of orange, tomato, tangerine instead of oranges, tomatoes, tangerines, etc. Syntax has a particularly large reserve in this respect: phrases can serve as the basis for the formation of words, and complex sentences can be reduced to simple ones, etc. For example: an electric train (electric train), a record book (a record book), buckwheat (buckwheat), etc. Wed also the parallel use of constructions of the type: Brother said that his father would come. - Brother said about the arrival of his father. A variety of abbreviations testify to the economy of language forms, especially if abbreviation formations acquire a permanent form of names - nouns that can obey the norms of grammar (university, study at a university). The development of a language, like development in any other sphere of life and activity, cannot but be stimulated by the inconsistency of the ongoing processes. Contradictions (shal antinomy) are inherent in the language itself as a phenomenon, without them any changes are unthinkable. It is in the struggle of opposites that the self-development of language is manifested. Five or six basic antinomies are usually distinguished1: the antinomy of the speaker and the listener; antinomy of usage and possibilities of the language system; antinomy of code and text; antinomy, conditional1 Russian language at the end of the 20th century (1985-1995). P. 9. 19 due to the asymmetry of the linguistic sign; the antinomy of two language functions - informational and expressive, the antinomy of two forms of language - written and oral. The antinomy of the speaker and the listener is created as a result of the difference in the interests of the interlocutors (or the reader and the author) entering into contact: the speaker is interested in simplifying and shortening the statement, and the listener is interested in simplifying and facilitating the perception and understanding of the statement. A clash of interests creates a conflict situation, which must be removed by searching for forms of expression that satisfy both sides. In different eras of the life of society, this conflict is resolved in different ways. For example, in a society where the leading role is played by public forms of communication (disputes, rallies, oratory appeals, persuasive speeches), the attitude towards the listener is more tangible. Antique rhetoric is largely built with this mindset in mind. They give clear rules for constructing a persuasive speech. No wonder the methods of rhetoric, the organization of public speech are actively implanted in the current socio-political situation in Russia, when the principle of openness, open expression of one's opinion is elevated to the leading criterion for the activity of parliamentarians, journalists, correspondents, etc. Currently, there are manuals and manuals devoted to the problems of oratory, the problems of dialogue, the problems of speech culture, the concept of which includes not only such a quality as literary literacy, but especially expressiveness, persuasiveness, logicality1. In other eras, a clear dominance of written speech and its influence on the communication process can be felt. The focus on the written text (the predominance of the interests of the writer, the speaker), the text of the prescription prevailed in Soviet society, and it was to this that the activities of the mass media were subordinated. Thus, despite the intralinguistic essence of this antinomy, it is thoroughly permeated with social content. 1 See: Lnushkin V.I. Rhetoric: Uch. allowance. - Perm, 1994; Zaretskaya E. N. Rhetoric: Theory and practice of speech communication. - M., 1998; Andreev V.I. business rhetoric. - Kazan, 1993; Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. - M., 1980; Goldin V.E. Speech and etiquette. - M., 1983; Fedoseev P.N. etc. On the art of controversy. - M., 1980; Volkov A.JI. Fundamentals of Russian rhetoric. - M., 1996; Graudina L.K., Miskevin T.N. Theory and practice of Russian eloquence. - M., 1989; Kokhtev N.N. Rhetoric: Uch. allowance. - M., 1994; Formanovskaya N.I. Speech etiquette and communication culture. - M, 1989; Culture of Russian speech: Uch. for universities / Ed. ed. OK. Graudina, E.N. Shiryaev. - M, 2000; Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Theory of rhetoric. - M., 1999; Golub I.B. Fundamentals of eloquence. - M., 2000; etc. 20 So the conflict between the speaker and the listener is resolved now in favor of the speaker, now in favor of the listener. This can manifest itself not only at the level general settings, as noted above, but also at the level of the linguistic forms themselves - in the preference for some and the denial or restriction of others. For example, in the Russian language of the beginning and middle of the 20th century. many abbreviations appeared (sound, alphabetic, partly syllabic). This was extremely convenient for the one who composed the texts (saving speech efforts), but now more and more dissected names appear (cf. abbreviations, but, competing with them, they have a clear advantage of influencing power, since they carry an open content. The following example is very illustrative in this regard: in Literaturnaya Gazeta dated 06/05/1991, a letter was placed by Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Rus', in which a sharp condemnation of the practice of using the abbreviation ROC (Russian Orthodox Church ) in our press. “Neither the spirit of a Russian person, nor the rules of church piety allow such a substitution,” the patriarch writes. Indeed, such familiarity in relation to the Church turns into a serious spiritual loss. The name of the Russian Orthodox Church turns into an empty badge that does not affect the spiritual strings of a person. Alexy II ends his reasoning like this: “I hope that strained abbreviations like the Russian Orthodox Church or those that once existed “V. Great" and even "I. Christ" will not be found in church speech." The antinomy of code and text is a contradiction between a set of language units (code is the sum of phonemes, morphemes, words, syntactic units) and their use in coherent speech (text). There is such a connection here: if you increase the code (increase the number of language characters), then the text that is built from these characters will be reduced; and vice versa, if the code is shortened, then the text will certainly increase, since the missing code characters will have to be transmitted descriptively, using the remaining characters. A textbook example of such a relationship is the names of our relatives. In Russian, there were special kinship terms for naming various kinship relationships within the family: brother-in-law - husband's brother; brother-in-law - wife's brother; sister-in-law - husband's sister; sister-in-law - wife's sister, daughter-in-law - son's wife; father-in-law - husband's father; mother-in-law - the wife of the father-in-law, the mother of the husband; son-in-law - the husband of a daughter, sister, sister-in-law; father-in-law - the father of the wife; mother-in-law - wife's mother; nephew - son of a brother, sister; niece is the daughter of a brother or sister. Some of these words (brother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, 21 daughters-in-law, father-in-law, mother-in-law) were gradually forced out of speech, words fell out, but the concepts remained. Consequently, in their place, descriptive replacements (brother of the wife, brother of the husband, sister of the husband, etc.) began to be used more and more often. The number of words in the active dictionary has decreased, and the text has increased as a result. Another example of the relationship between code and text is the relationship between a term and its definition (definition). The definition gives a detailed interpretation of the term. Therefore, the more often terms are used in the text without their description, the shorter the text will be. True, in this case, the reduction of the text when the code is lengthened is observed under the condition that the number of objects of the name does not change. If a new sign appears to designate a new object, then the structure of the text does not change. An increase in the code due to borrowing occurs in cases where a foreign word can only be translated as a phrase, for example: cruise - a sea voyage, surprise - an unexpected gift, broker (broker) - an intermediary in a transaction (usually in exchange transactions), lounge - a device in the circus, insuring artists to perform dangerous tricks, camping - a camp for autotourists. The antinomy of the usage and the possibilities of the language (in other words - systems and norms1) lies in the fact that the possibilities of the language (system) are much wider than the use of linguistic signs accepted in the literary language; the traditional norm acts in the direction of restriction, prohibition, while the system is able to satisfy the great demands of communication. For example, the norm fixes the insufficiency of some grammatical forms (the absence of the 1st person singular form of the verb to win; the absence of aspect opposition in a number of verbs that qualify as two-species, etc.). The use compensates for such absences by using the possibilities of the language itself, often using analogies for this. For example, in the verb to attack in a dictionary way, out of context, the meanings of perfect or imperfect vitsa do not differ, then, contrary to the norm, a pair of attack - attack is created by analogy with the verbs organize - organize (the form organize has already penetrated into the literary language). According to the same model, forms are created to use, mobilize, etc., which are only at the stage of vernacular. Thus, the norm resists the possibilities of language. More examples: the system gives two types of noun endings in the nominative plural - houses / houses, engineers / engineers, volumes / volumes, workshops / workshops. The norm differentiates 1 Russian language: Encyclopedia. - M., 1997. S. 659. 22 forms, taking into account style and stylistic criteria: literary-neutral (professors, teachers, engineers, poplars, cakes) and professional (cake, casing, power, anchor, editor, proofreader), vernacular (square, mother), book (teachers, professors). The antinomy caused by the asymmetry of the linguistic sign is manifested in the fact that the signified and the signifier are always in a state of conflict: the signified (meaning) tends to acquire new, more accurate means of expression (new signs for designation), and the signifier (sign) - to expand the circle of its values, acquire new values. A striking example of the asymmetry of a linguistic sign and its overcoming is the history of the word ink with a fairly transparent meaning (niello, black - ink). Initially, there was no conflict - one signified and one signifier (ink is a black substance). However, over time, substances of a different color appear to perform the same function as ink, so a conflict arose: meaning one (ink), and signified several - liquids of different colors. As a result, combinations of red ink, blue ink, green ink, which are absurd from the point of view of common sense, have arisen. Absurdity is removed by the next step in the development of the word ink, the appearance of the phrase black ink; thus the word ink lost its black meaning and began to be used in the sense of "a liquid used for writing." This is how the balance came about - the signified and the signifier "came to an agreement." Examples of the asymmetry of linguistic signs can be the words kitten, puppy, calf, etc., if they are used in the meanings of "cat cub", "dog cub", "cow cub", in which there is no differentiation based on sex and therefore one signifier refers to two signified. If it is necessary to specify the exact gender, corresponding correlations arise - calf and heifer, cat and cat, etc. In this case, say, the name calf means only a male cub. Another example: the word deputy means a person by position, regardless of gender (one sign - two signified). The same is true in other cases, for example, when the designations of a person, a creature, and an object collide: broiler (room for chickens and a chicken), classifier (device and one who classifies), multiplier (device and animation specialist), conductor (a part of a machine and a transport worker), etc. The language seeks to overcome this inconvenience of forms, in particular, through secondary suffixation: baking powder (object) - baking powder (person), perforator (object) - perforator (person). Simultaneously with this differentiation of designations (person and object), specialization of suffixes also occurs: the person suffix -tel (cf.: teacher) becomes the designation of the object, and the meaning of the person is conveyed by the suffix -schik. The possible asymmetry of the linguistic sign in our time leads to the expansion of the meanings of many words, their generalization; these are, for example, the designations of various positions, titles, professions that are equally suitable for a man and a woman (lawyer, pilot, doctor, professor, assistant, director, lecturer, etc.). Even if correlating feminine forms are possible with such words, they either have a reduced stylistic coloring (lecturer, doctor, lawyer), or acquire a different meaning (professor - professor's wife). Neutral correlated pairs are more rare: teacher - teacher, chairman - chairman). The antinomy of the two functions of language is reduced to the opposition of a purely informational function and an expressive one. Both act in different directions: the information function leads to uniformity, standardization of language units, the expressive one encourages novelty, originality of expression. The speech standard is fixed in official areas of communication - in business correspondence, legal literature, state acts. Expression, novelty of expression is more characteristic of oratorical, journalistic, artistic speech. A kind of compromise (and more often a conflict) is found in the media, especially in the newspaper, where expression and standard, as VT believes. Kostomarov1, are a constructive feature. One more sphere of manifestation of contradictions can be called - this is the antinomy of the oral and written forms of the language. At present, in connection with the growing role of spontaneous communication and the weakening of the framework of official public communication (prepared in writing in the past), in connection with the weakening of censorship and self-censorship, the very functioning of the Russian language has changed 2. In the past, rather isolated forms of language implementation - oral and written - begin to converge in some cases, activating their natural interaction. Oral speech perceives elements of bookishness, written speech makes extensive use of the principles of colloquialism. The very correlation of bookishness (the basis is written speech) and colloquialism (the basis is oral speech) begins to collapse. Kostomarov V.G. appears in the sounding speech. Russian language on a newspaper page. - M., 1971. Panov M.V. From observations on the style of today's periodicals // Language of modern journalism. - M., 1988. 2 24 there are not only lexical and grammatical features of book speech, but also purely written symbolism, for example: a person with a capital letter, kindness in quotation marks, a quality with a plus (minus) sign, etc. Moreover, these "book borrowings" again turn into written speech already in a colloquial version. Here are some examples: We leave behind-the-scenes agreements behind the scenes (MK, 1993, March 23); Only medical workers serving 20 clients of the sobering-up station, I counted 13 plus a psychologist, plus four consultants (Pravda, 1990, Feb. 25); One of the side effects of this so-called fetal therapy is a general rejuvenation of the body, a change in the “minus” of biological age (Vech. Moscow, 1994, March 23); These charming blond girls in the same blue jackets and skirts as his suit, with snow-white blouses, in these beautiful bright orange thickly inflated waistcoats and dash belts, suddenly became inaccessible to him, like the Kingdom of Heaven (F. Neznansky. Private investigation) . So the boundaries of speech forms become blurred, and, according to V.G. Kostomarov, a special type of speech appears - book-oral speech. This situation predetermines the strengthening of the interpenetration of bookishness and colloquialism (oral and written), which sets in motion the adjoining planes, giving rise to a new linguistic quality based on new collisions and contradictions. “The dependence of the functioning of language means on the form of speech decreases, but their attachment to the topic, sphere, 2 situations of communication increases.” All these antinomies, which were discussed, are internal stimuli for the development of language. But due to the influence of social factors, their action in different epochs of the life of the language may turn out to be more or less intense and open. In modern language, many of these antinomies have become especially active. In particular, the most striking phenomena characteristic of the functioning of the Russian language of our time, M.V. Panov3 considers the strengthening of the personal principle, stylistic dynamism and stylistic contrast, dialogic communication. Thus, socio- and psycholinguistic factors influence the features of the language of the modern era. 1 Kostomarov V.G. Trends in the development of the modern Russian language // Russian language at school. - 1976. No. 6. 2 Ibid. Panov M.V. From observations on the style of today's periodicals. VARIANTITY OF A LANGUAGE SIGN The concept of variance and its origins Linguistic variance is defined as the ability of a language to convey the same meanings in different forms. Language variants are formal varieties of the same linguistic unit, which, with the same meaning, differ in a partial mismatch of their sound composition. Variant linguistic signs, as a rule, have two linguistic forms, although there may be more than two. Variance as a linguistic phenomenon demonstrates linguistic redundancy, which is also necessary for the language. Being a consequence of linguistic evolution, variance becomes the basis for the further development of the language. The redundancy of the form is the natural state of the language, an indicator of its vitality and dynamism. Moreover, not every variance of the means of linguistic expression is “redundant”. It becomes "redundant" only when the options do not have any special load3. Let's add - neither informational nor functional. Variation is usually considered in relation to normativity (normative - non-normative), as well as to temporal reference (outdated - new). In addition, variance is also found in the functional plan (common and special, functionally fixed). The modern Russian language, reflecting social mobility, is replete with variant means of expression, and their artificial reduction (for example, restrictions in dictionaries) is meaningless. Russian language: Encyclopedia. - M., 1997. P. 61. On the variance of the word, see: Gorbachev K.S. Word variance and language norm. - L., 1978; Nemchenko V.N. Variation of language units. Typology of variants in modern Russian. - Krasnoyarsk, 1990; Solntsev V.M. Variation as a general property of a language system // Questions of Linguistics. - 1984. No. 2. Filin F.P. A few words about the language norm and culture of speech // Questions of the culture of speech. - 1966. Issue. 7. P. 18. 26 “The requirements of absolute invariance of norms do not correspond to the current state of the Russian literary language”1. Variance can be viewed as a competition of means of expression. As a result of this competition, the most convenient and appropriate options for specific communication conditions win, i.e. competition is a natural phenomenon dictated by communicative expediency. The reasons for the appearance of variance lie in the combination of the action of internal and external factors in the development of the language. Intra-system causes are generated by the capabilities of the language itself (the operation of the laws of analogy, the asymmetry of a linguistic sign, speech economy, etc.). Among the causes of an external nature, contacts with other languages, the influence of dialects, and the social differentiation of the language are usually named. Variation is actively used in creating socio-professional differences in language means, their age and functional-style differentiation. The presence of a certain number of options is a variable, unstable value. Options come and go. The life expectancy of the options is not the same: some live for a long time, for decades and even centuries, others can be classified as one-day options. For example, the form of the adjective English, which finally established itself as a stably literary one, replaced the common in the 17th-18th centuries. forms English, English, English, English, etc.3 Such words as hall (chronologically fixed variants of hall, hall), coffee (coffee), etc. have also lived a difficult life. The process of crowding out options, reducing their number is an uneven, often contradictory process . There may be a complete displacement of options (hall - hall), or there may be rivalry of options for a rather long period of time, while maintaining this variance up to the present day (industry - industry; cottage cheese - cottage cheese). And within the same chronological period, variation of forms is allowed (jersey - jersey; Newton - Newton; round - roundabout). With the inevitable process of continuous variation in each chronological period, it becomes necessary to unify linguistic forms and, consequently, reduce variance. Decreasing of variants occurs, as a rule, as a result of regulation, codification of phenomena (legitimization of the quality of the word) 3 Gorbachev K.S. Variation of the word and language norm. op. pp. 26. 27 of any of the options in dictionaries, reference books, textbooks), i.e. elevating one of the variants to the rank of a literary norm. How complex the life of variants is and how dissimilar the results of variation can be can be illustrated by many examples, take at least the process of semantic divergence of variant forms, the result of which may be the birth of a new word. For example, in the variant pair project - project due to the concentration in the variant project of the meanings "plan", "developed plan", "preliminary text of some document" with a common semantic dominant of reality, the variant project with the former, obsolete meaning "plan for the future" acquired a new semantic and stylistic appearance - the meaning of "unrealizable plan" with a certain amount of ironic connotation (to build floodlights) is put forward in the first place. As a result, modern dictionaries record different words. Variant forms of wit - wit have also been diluted with different meanings, fixing in the second case (now a separate word) one of the possible, former figurative uses. Wed See also: herbalist - a person who collects medicinal herbs , knows how to use them ^ herbalist - a word that has three meanings: 1) the same as herbalist; 2) herbal tincture; 3) an old book describing medicinal herbs and methods of herbal treatment. By the way, homograph words (the same spelling, different stress) should not be confused with such cases: atlas - atlas; glacier - glacier. Variation can manifest itself not only directly in the form of the word itself, taken separately, but also at the level of the combined abilities of the word: atomic engine - atomic weight; zero hours - reduce everything to zero. There are some disagreements regarding the understanding and interpretation of the very concept of "language variant". According to some researchers, varieties of linguistic signs within the limits of word identity can be considered variant. Moreover, words or its grammatical forms can be variant. In other cases, variance is understood somewhat more broadly: the variants include word-formation modifications such as tourist - 1 tourist, rolling - rolling. A narrow and broad understanding of variance is found even when considering individual, particular cases, for example, when comparing forms such as voice - voice; gate - gate; night - night. The stumbling block is the origin of these forms - primordially Russian and Old Slavonic. It all depends on the starting position. If considered1 Russian language: Encyclopedia. P. 62. If variance is considered only as a formal variety of a linguistic sign within one national language and within a language within the framework of word identity, then not only parallels that etymologically go back to different languages will fall out of variance, but also most of the so-called word-formation variants that differ word-forming suffixes (Omich - Omichanin, planetary - planetary, etc.). The problem of variance in Russian studies arose in connection with the development of normalizing activity and the study of the dynamics of the literary norm. Therefore, the issues of variance and normativity were initially studied in parallel, which received a reliable way out into the practice of compiling dictionaries, reference books, in which information of a recommendatory nature was needed. So the concepts of variance and normativity have become key for a special section of the science of language - orthology (the science of the correctness of speech). Leaving aside the disputes about the specific content of the term “option”, let us stop, following K.S. Gorbachevich, on the recognition as a variant of the formal variety of the word (identical to the given word), which has the same lexical meaning and has the same morphological structure. Those. the presence of different meanings or different derivational suffixes will be considered as signs of individual words, and not their variants. With this approach to variance, for example, ax (big ax) and ax (axe handle) are different words, and zakut and zakuta (reg.) are variant forms of one word. Or else: appetizer and appetizer (simple) are different words, although they have the same meaning, but differ in morphological composition. In this sense, the following example is interesting: cubby and cubby (in the sense of "zakut, zakuta" - a barn for small livestock) are options that differ in the form of the grammatical gender, and cubby in the meaning of "secluded corner in a living room" is a separate word. Understanding variance as a formal variety of a word or its grammatical form leads to the recognition of the presence of the following possible features in the variants: a difference in pronunciation, in the location of stress, a difference in the composition of formative affixes. In this case, even the suffixes of subjective evaluation cannot be recognized as forming variants, for example: son, son, son, son are different words, and son and son (obsolete) are variants of one word. Variant linguistic signs (words, their forms, and, more rarely, phrases) must have a certain set of features: a common lexical meaning, a single grammatical meaning, and an identity of morphological structure. So, a cap and a cap are different words, since they do not have the same morphological structure, although they have the same lexical meaning; on the other hand, different words (and not variants) can also be words that are identical in phonetic composition and morphological appearance and have different meanings; thin - not fat, not well-fed; thin - worst, bad (colloquial); thin - leaky, leaky (colloquial) or bracket - punctuation mark; bracket - a way to cut hair; bracket - a metal strip curved in a semicircle, serving as a handle at doors, chests. Different grammatical meanings can serve as a sign of different grammatical forms of a word, for example: Do you like to read (express, ink), love a book (led, incl.). Another example: lack of sugar and lack of sugar (sugar and sugar are variant forms, if they have the same meaning - quantity, lack of sugar); if different meanings are meant - lack of sugar (poor quality) and lack of sugar (small quantity), then these are not options, but different forms of the word. How do the options differ? Firstly, by pronunciation: bakery - bulo [sh] naya, pace - t [e] mp, rain - rain "zh; secondly, by phonemes that have lost their word-distinguishing function: galoshes - galoshes, mattress - mattress; thirdly, the location of the stress: far - far, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, kdmpas - compass (profess), agreement - agreement (colloquial. ); fourthly, with formative suffixes: reached - reached, got wet - got wet; fifthly, the endings of some cases: engineers - engineers, five kilograms - five kilograms, many oranges - many oranges; sixth, sound discrepancies in some prefixes and suffixes (often these are forms that go back to the Old Slavonic and native Russian source; if we neglect etymology, we can classify such parallels as variants, as well as in general full-vowel and non-vowel forms (breg - coast, gates - gate): ascend - ascend, appeasement - appeasement, humility - humility. When determining options, the most fundamental and at the same time difficult in a number of special cases is the sign of morphological identity. This sign is either recognized as absolute, or it is partially not taken into account, in the latter case it is allowed to talk about word-formation variants.The denial of this feature (morphological identity) leads to a broader idea of variance.Then many paronyms fall into the category of variances. words, such as elite and elite, tourist and tourist, seconded and business trip, planetary and planetary, etc. However, all these and similar words in dictionaries have independent dictionary positions, by the way, they differ in meaning, and not only in morphological appearance. It seems that referring them to variants is wrong, although it is quite common and recorded in authoritative publications1. In this case, the identity is recognized grammatical function and there are inflectional grammatical variants (such as spasm - spasm, cheese - cheese) and word-formation (such as knurling - rolling - rolling, tourist - tourist). The narrowing of the idea of variation to morphological identity is more in line with lexicographic practice and the modern theory of word formation. However, difficulties arise when considering a number of parallel formations, in which, in particular, suffixes cannot be recognized as variants of one morpheme, since they are not functionally identical. Indeed, what about such forms as she-wolf and she-wolf, bridge and bridge, cut and cut , nosy and nosy! Prefixes and suffixes here do not vary within the word, but are defined in the dictionary (cf.: she-wolf - elephant, she-wolf - fox)3. Therefore, strictly speaking, these are different words. So, in qualifying variants, we agree with the opinion of those linguists who are strictly focused on lexical and material indicators, when regularly reproduced modifications of the same word are recognized as variants. Moreover, formal differences between words and their forms can sometimes be found at the level of syntax (for example, kangaroo - f. and m. gender; coffee - m. or cf. p., etc.). Understanding variants within the framework of the identity of the word (taking into account the meaningful and material coincidence) makes it possible to distinguish variance from other lexico-semantic phenomena, in particular, from synonymy. Synonyms differ either in shades of meaning or in stylistic coloring, while etymology and material (morphological) identity are not taken into account when defining synonyms. For a variant, the presence of a special (other) derivational element is contraindicated, this is a sign of a separate word. Therefore, pairs of words like eyes and eyes, airplane and aircraft are synonymous, but not variants. Synonyms can be single-rooted, but from variRussian language: Encyclopedia. - M., 1997. P. 62. Gorbachevich K.S. Word variance and language norm. P. 16. Ibid. 31 ants of words are distinguished by the presence of a special, separate word-formation element, for example, a prefix (scold - scold), a suffix (title - title), a prefix and a suffix (swing - swing), postfix (smoke - smoke). In any case, synonyms are separate, independent words, close or coinciding in meaning, while not at all claiming material identity: these can be words of different languages (victory - victory), different roots (fear - horror), one root, but a different set of word-forming elements (illiteracy - illiteracy, stool - stool, tablet - tablet). It is impossible to recognize paronyms as options - single-root words that have similarities in sound, but differ in their meanings and partly in morphological structure: characteristic - characterological, double - dual, angry - angry noisy - noise, elite - elite, powerful - pay powerfully - pay, payment - payment, etc. Such pairs of words differ from variants both lexically (they have different meanings or different shades of meanings), and morphologically (they have a different set of word-forming elements), and syntactically (they show different contextual compatibility). In certain meanings, paronyms can act as synonyms (double - dual), but most often they are contextually non-interchangeable (swamp gas - marshland; tourist equipment - travel voucher; seconded specialist travel certificate). The impossibility of interchange fundamentally distinguishes paronyms from synonyms, and even more so from variants. Paronyms can differ in meaning and when combined with the same words, for example: an elite residential building and an elite residential building (elite house - designed for the elite; elite house - a high-quality house built for the elite). Apparently, in the second case, the original meaning of the word, recorded in the specialized literature, is visible: elite seeds, elite animal husbandry (from elite - the best, selected plants and animals). With the introduction of the words elite and elite into a broad social context, their combination possibilities also changed. Classification of variants Due to the fact that the very concept of variance is interpreted ambiguously, there is no generally accepted classification of variants in the literature. In attempts to systematize language variants, a different set of features is taken into account in accordance with the original 32 positions in understanding this linguistic phenomenon. The existing differences in views are explained primarily by different ideas about the range of variation - it can expand incredibly and lose certain outlines, as, for example, when a pair of words airplane and airplane1 are considered variants, or it can be a clearly limited word identity2. But even in the latter case, many questions arise. For example, should semantic analogues of literary Slavic and Russian origin be considered variants (in the 18th century they were called identical words)? Are there word formations? Are there syntactic variants? If they exist, then to what extent (at the level of a phrase, sentence)? Only by fundamentally resolving all these issues, defining their positions, it is possible to create a consistent classification of options. Based on a narrow understanding of variance and focusing on the literal meaning of the term "variant" (Latin varias - changing), we will consider variants of a word (a fixed difference in pronunciation and in the location of the stress) and different grammatical forms of the same word that are identical in its grammatical function. Consequently, variance is limited by the inflectional possibilities of the word, but not by word-formation. This approach to variance defines both the boundaries of variance and the classification of variants within these boundaries. First of all, lexical variants are distinguished (variants of words: cottage cheese - cottage cheese; wind - wind) and grammatical (more precisely, morphological) variants (variants of forms: on vacation - on vacation; workshops - workshops, engineers - engineer, one hundred grams - one hundred grams). Options can be complete or incomplete. Full versions differ only in formal indicators (pronunciation, stress), incomplete ones also differ functionally (common and specially professional, common and non-literary). Krysin L.P. Word-formation variants and their social distribution// Actual problems of lexicology. - Novosibirsk, 1969. A more common understanding of variance. See decree. op. Gorbachevich K.S. See also the opinion of F.F. Fortunatov about the qualification of a pair of words like false and false as various words (Selected works. T. 1. - M., 1956). The scientists V.V. Vinogradov, GO. Vinokur, A.I. Smirnitsky, L.K. Graudina and others. Graudina L.K. On the history of the normalization of variants in grammars (the beginning of the 20th century - the 60s) // Literary norm and variance. - M., 1981. S. 39. However, as already noted, there are different opinions regarding the "identical words" of Old Slavonic and Russian origin. 2 Valgina N.S. 33 Accent, phonetic, phonemic, grammatical (morphological and partially, very limitedly, syntactic) variants are distinguished according to their characteristic formal features. Accent variants differ in the actual stress (cottage cheese - cottage cheese, otherwise - otherwise) or due to the difference in stress and phonemic composition (pine - pine, spare - spare). Accent variants may exist within the framework of the literary language, as, for example, in the words industry - industry, epilepsy - epilepsy, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, far - far away. Some forms of words also fluctuate within the framework of the literary language: peace and peace, repeat and repeat, etc. But more often, of course, variants that are opposed on the basis of “literary / non-literary” turn out to be different shocks. For example: lit. portfolio - non-lit. briefcase, lit. means - non-lit. facilities. The opposition can also be of a different plan - common and professional, special, for example: report and prof. report, kbmpas and prof. compass. When a variant form is included in a literary language, there are discrepancies in the opinions of lexicographers. For example, most of the dictionaries fix the literary stress in the word culinary, unequivocally denying the literary variant culinary. But in the latest editions of the SI dictionary. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova recognizes both options as acceptable - cooking and cooking, apparently, in this case, the mass use of the second option at the present time is taken into account. Phonetic (sound) variants are found with different pronunciation of sounds and their combinations in words and word forms. For example, variant pronunciation occurs in words with combinations -ch- (bakery - bulo [w] naya, of course - horse [w] but, birdhouse - rather [w] nickname) and -th- (what - [w] then). Variation occurs when mastering foreign words, for example, the pronunciation of the sound [e] after a hard or soft consonant: [t "e] mp - [te] mp, [d "e] kan - [de] kan, [r "e] ctor - [re] ctor, [k "e] mping - [ke] mping. The choice of the option in this case reveals the degree of Russification of foreign words. Phonemic variation in the modern Russian language is represented to a lesser extent than phonetic and especially accent, although in the past it was widespread. Apparently, the fact that phonemic variance has a direct outlet to spelling, and the latter in connection with expansion, is having an effect. Only variants of control and agreement, as well as variants of prepositional and non-prepositional combinations, are meant. 34 positions of written speech strives for unification. Therefore, variants are more often preserved in the facts of non-literary use, and the literary language allows phonemic variants in extremely meager doses, as, for example, in the words mattress - mattress, zero - zero, tunnel - tunnel, little animal - small animal, skittle - skittle, fade - fade, faded - faded, bile - bile, mafiosi - mafioso, etc. As for the options like beaver - beaver, raise - raise, wrap - wrap, and even more so like smallpox - vospa, crane - crane, they are opposed as normative (1- I position in a pair) and non-normative (2nd position in a pair). Phonemic variance, reflected in spelling, is often supported by dictionaries that fix double spelling, for example, in the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova (1995) spellings are given: psalter and psalter, red deer and red deer, kenar and kenar, dogwood and dogwood, plan and plan, fiord and fjord, bivouac and bivouac, tunnel and tunnel, putty and putty, in other cases spelling variants were often removed, for example, in pairs office - office, tights - tights, felt-tip pen - felt-tip pen writing in the second positions disappeared. A certain ordering in the spelling of words was partly fixed by the rules of 1956 (exploitation instead of exploitation and exploitation; intercity instead of intercity and intercity, etc.). Until 1956, there were even more options: sandwich and sandwich, ballast and ballast; stepmother and stepmother, bicheva and becheva, blizzard and minnow, minnow and pikar, etc. Thus, phonemic variants are often combined with orthographic ones. Morphological variants are formal modifications of a word while maintaining the morphological structure, lexical and grammatical meaning. Fluctuations are usually observed in the forms of grammatical gender, number and case of nouns and partly in verb forms, for example, fluctuations in the form of grammatical gender: zakuta - zakut, aviary - aviary, sprat - sprat, lobster - lobster, mongoose - mongoose, spasma - spasm, rail - rail, stack - stack, shutter - shutter, etc. Fluctuations (i.e. variance) can also be observed in the forms of a grammatical number. In nouns, in particular, the morphological opposition of number forms is found in the opposition of the singular and plural forms, and this opposition is based on the idea of a real quantity - singularity or plurality. However, in different classes of nouns, an incomplete semantic correlation of the singular and plural forms is found, i.e. not always, for example, the plural form corresponds to the meaning of plurality, and the singular form corresponds to the meaning of singularity. A particularly meaningful category is the category of the plural. For example, the plural form numbers are used to name nationalities, ethnic groups (Arabs, Argentines, Canadians, Kazakhs, Poles, Pomors, Chukchi, etc.). Such forms give a general concept of the nation as a whole and do not denote the sum (set) of representatives of this nation. In other cases, plural forms are used to name household items (shoes, clothes, etc.): boots, boots, over the knee boots, laces, slippers, mittens, socks, stockings, leggings (often these are the names of paired items, but here the main thing is not the meaning of pairing, but the meaning of a generalized generic, as well as in other semantic classes of nouns, for example: reins, castanets, dumbbells, timpani, skates, skis, etc. Thus, the plural form is used here not as opposed to the form singular (a single item and a lot of the same items), but as an independent designation of generic affiliation.Of course, the opposition of the singular - the plural of similar names can appear in contextual conditions (cf., for example: Tame antelopes are walking in the garden, one of them approached the house - here the plural form denotes not a generic name, but the number of given individuals), but this is not the only possible meaning of the form... Apparently, on this linguistic possibility (the ability to express different meanings by plural forms), variance arises, for example: lace - lace, doors - door, mezzanines - mezzanine, cat combs - catacombs, railings - railings, gangways - gangways, etc. In all these cases, the plural forms. numbers have the same meaning as unit forms. numbers, hence they are options. It is precisely because of their variance (transmission of the same, not different meanings) that dictionaries show a different presentation of these words. For example, the word colic in the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov, in BAS, MAC is given with the form of units. hours, and in the SI dictionary. Ozhegov (1972) does not have such a form. By the way, in the SI dictionary. Ozhegova, N.Yu. Shvedova (1995) form sg. numbers are indicated. In the word reinterpretation in the dictionaries of D.N. Ushakov and BAS, the unit form is given. hours, and in the SI dictionary. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova (1995), this form is not specified. At the word door in the SI dictionary. Ozhegova, N.Yu. Shvedova (1995) has an indication of the plural form. 1 Cheltsova L.K. The plural form of nouns as the original form in lexicography // Grammar and Norm. - M., 1977. 36 numbers - in the same meaning as units. number. In the same dictionary, the word antics (grimaces) is presented in an interesting way: both forms are given, but the example is given not to the capital form (grimacing), but to the plural form. numbers: Speak with antics, i.e. variant notation is used. With the word applause, the form of unit is indicated. numbers, but marked "outdated". Morphological variants are also found in case forms. So, L.K. Graudina notes that more than one thousand nouns are male. gender on a solid consonant fluctuate in one or another case form 1 . This is their form. n. pl. numbers (tractors - tractors, editors - editors, sectors - sectors); genus form. n. pl. numbers (microns - microns, Georgians - Georgians, grams - grams, oranges - orange); genus form. p. units numbers (snow - snow, people - people, tea - tea, sugar - sugar); preposition form. p. units numbers (in the workshop - in the workshop, on vacation - on vacation, in the garden (in kindergarten) - in the garden (walk in the garden), on the cape - on the cape. Fluctuations in case forms and, therefore, in their variance are also observed in other, less typical and common cases, for example, in the forms of sheets - sheets, commentary - comments, lands - lands, towels - towels, etc. Morphological variants are also characteristic of some verb forms, in particular: forms of the past tense (extinguished - extinguished, went out - went out, got wet - got wet); parallel forms of the infinitive (dignify - dignify, swamp - swamp, condition - condition). One can speak very carefully about syntactic variation. In the narrow, literal sense, there are few syntactic options, although there are different ways of expressing thought. However, in this case, we mean parallel syntactic constructions, they are rather synonymous than variant: for example, attributive relations can be transferred participle turnovers or attributive clauses; object relations - with explanatory subordinate clauses or word forms as part of a simple sentence (cf .: The house standing on the hill is far visible. - The house that stands on the hill is clearly visible; Gate announced his arrival. - Brother announced that he would come) . These are different constructs that convey the same messages. But in terms of language, they are not variant, as they represent different syntactic formations. It is possible to see variance at the syntactic level only within the framework of phrases, more precisely, in the facts of coordination and control1 Graudina L.K. Inflectional Variants: The Weight of Variable Elements in Grammar // Grammar and Norm. - M., 1977. S. 162. 37 variance here is manifested in different compatibility properties of words. Signs of syntactic variants: 1) the identity of the grammatical meaning and the grammatical model, 2) the material coincidence of the components of the combination. The main difference between the variants lies in the formal non-coincidence of the dependent component (presence or absence of a preposition; case form, etc.). Combinations such as Petrov's statement - Petrov's statement can be recognized as variant; book review - book review; a student capable of mathematics is a student capable of mathematics; belong to an elite group - belong to an elite group; go by train - go by train; the ability to sacrifice - the ability to sacrifice; act of verification - act of verification; production control - production control, etc. Variation is also manifested in combinations of the subject and the predicate, where the choice of the form of the predicate is possible, for example: Most of the students arrived - arrived; The secretary came - came (the variance is fixed only when the meaning of the secretary is a woman). Variation at the syntactic level is always associated with the semantic-grammatical relationships of the combined words, often the identification of these relationships causes practical difficulties. For example, what is correct: a statement from whom or whose!; feedback about what or what! The literary norm requires the use of the following forms: dissertation review, but dissertation review; Petrov’s statement (whose?), but recently, in office work, the form of a statement from whom is also allowed; the same when using combinations of an employee's characteristic (whose characteristic) and a characteristic for an employee (the personnel department makes a characteristic for an employee). It is more difficult to deal with examples of the type to decide destinies or destinies, the limit of patience or patience; sum up the results of the competition or competition; full of impressions or impressions; the price of things or things; monument to Anikushin or Anikushin! and so on. In such cases, the variance often turns out to be imaginary, and it is removed when the exact meaning of the combination (contextually determined) is established: Monument to Anikushin (a monument made by Anikushin) - Monument to Pushkin (placed in honor of Pushkin); in combination to decide destinies, the meaning of “determine fate” is conveyed (for example, in court), and in combination to decide destinies - the meaning of “determine destinies”. In combinations, the limit of patience / patience and the price of things / things also cannot be seen as variance, but for another reason - there is no common grammatical meaning (grammatical correlation), which again manifests itself in the context: set a price for things - 38 the form of things is controlled by the verb set; and in combination to set the price of things, the form of things depends on the noun price; approximately the same distribution of grammatical connections in combination to sum up the competition/competition (to summarize -> competition; results -> competition). If the distribution of grammatical connections and the general meaning of constructions are identical, then we can talk about syntactic variants. They appear historically, like other options. For example, by analogy or under the influence of other laws, there is a change in controlled forms or the displacement of prepositional combinations by prepositional ones, the forms of agreement change, etc. Often subtle semantic-grammatical connections appear in the change of control of forms. For example, in the word witness in the past, the verbal semantics was found to a greater extent than in the modern language, and therefore the control of the dative case was realized - a witness to the incident (what?), In modern usage, the form of the name comes to the fore, and the genitive attributive turns out to be more relevant - witness of the incident (what?). Subtle differences are seen in the sphere of prepositional management, cf.: Live in Russia, but in Ukraine. Recently, a variant form has arisen in Ukraine (apparently, a psychological factor is visible - the desire to get rid of the historically established "marginal" position - on the outskirts), although, of course, the change of prepositions v and na is far from always amenable to comprehension, since semes are "on the surface" (on) and “inside” (c) have lost their real basis, cf .: the old form - in the street and the new one - on the street (now some forms are no longer distinguished: in the kitchen - in the kitchen, in the field - on the field, but: on the street and in the alley). So, linguistic variants are seen within the framework of the identity of the word (it is necessary to match the lexical and grammatical meanings, as well as the word-formation model). Variants differ in formal features: accent, phonetic, phonemic, morphological and partially - syntactic. Linguistic variance is a consequence of linguistic evolution, an indicator of linguistic redundancy, but redundancy that gives impetus to movement and development. Decreasing options is a constant process, as well as the emergence of new options. The disappearance of variants occurs by replacing them with a stronger, more expedient one, recognized as a literary one for various reasons. Variants can diverge semantically and give impetus to the formation of independent words, in addition, variants can serve as a stylistic enrichment of the language if they contribute to the redistribution of stylistic assessments (bookish - colloquial, commonly used - professional, etc.). The presence of variants in the language creates an acute problem of the language norm. The study of the competition of variants is an important step in determining trends in the development of the language, in determining the living active processes in the language. LANGUAGE NORM The concept of a norm and its features The concept of a norm is usually associated with the idea of correct, literary literate speech, and literary speech itself is one of the aspects of a person's general culture. The norm, as a socio-historical and deeply national phenomenon, characterizes, first of all, the literary language - recognized as an exemplary form of the national language. Therefore, the terms "linguistic norm" and "literary norm" are often combined, especially when applied to the modern Russian language, although historically this is not the same thing. The language norm is formed in the actual practice of verbal communication, is worked out and fixed in public use as a usage (Latin usus - use, use, habit); the literary norm is undoubtedly based on the usage, but it is also specially guarded, codified, i.e. legitimized by special regulations (dictionaries, codes of practice, textbooks). The literary norm is the rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of grammatical and stylistic language means adopted in social and linguistic practice. The norm is historically mobile, but at the same time stable and traditional, it has such qualities as familiarity and obligatory nature. The stability and traditional character of the norm explains some degree of retrospectiveness of the norm. Despite its fundamental mobility and variability, the norm very carefully opens its borders for innovations, leaving them for the time being on the periphery of the language. Convincingly and simply A.M. Peshkovsky: “The norm is what was, and partly what is, but by no means what will be”1. Wed also: “The norm does not correspond to what can be said, but to what has already been said and what is traditionally “spoken” in the society in question” (E. Coseriu. Synchrony, diachrony and history / Translated from Spanish // New in linguistics. Issue 3. - M, 1963. 41 The nature of the norm is two-sided: on the one hand, it contains the objective properties of an evolving language (the norm is a realized possibility of the language), and on the other hand, social taste assessments (the norm is a stable way of expression and preferred by the educated part of society). This is how the living forces that direct the natural course of language development (and the consolidation of the results of this development in the norm) collide with the traditions of linguistic taste. The objective norm is created on the basis of the competition of variants of linguistic signs. For the recent past, classical fiction was considered the most authoritative source of the literary norm. At present, the center of norm formation has moved to the mass media (television, radio, periodicals). In accordance with this, the linguistic taste of the era also changes, due to which the very status of the literary language changes, the norm is democratized, it becomes more permeable to the former non-literary language means. The main reason for changing the norms is the evolution of the language itself, the presence of variance, which ensures the choice of the most appropriate options for linguistic expression. The notion of exemplary, standard, normative language means increasingly noticeably includes the meaning of expediency, convenience. The norm has a certain set of features that must be present in it in their entirety. K.S. writes in detail about the signs of the norm. Gorbachevich in the book "Word variance and language norm". He identifies three main features: 1) the stability of the norm, conservatism; 2) prevalence of the linguistic phenomenon; 3) the authority of the source. Each of the signs separately can be present in a particular linguistic phenomenon, but this is not enough. In order for a language tool to be recognized as normative, a combination of features is necessary. Thus, for example, errors can be extremely common, and they can persist over a long period of time. Finally, the language practice of a sufficiently authoritative printed organ may turn out to be far from ideal. As for the authoritativeness of the artists of the word, then there are special difficulties in assessing, since the language of the artistic 1 Kostomarov V.G. Language taste of the era. - M.D997. Literature is a phenomenon of a special kind, and highly artistic quality is often achieved precisely as a result of the free use of language, not according to strict rules. The quality (sign) of the stability of the norm manifests itself in different ways at different language levels. Moreover, this sign of the norm is directly related to the systemic nature of the language as a whole, therefore, at each language level, the ratio of "norm and system" manifests itself to a different degree, for example, in the field of pronunciation, the norm depends entirely on the system (cf. the laws of alternation of sounds, assimilation, pronunciation of groups consonants, etc.); in the field of grammar, the system gives out schemes, models, samples, and the norm - speech implementations of these schemes, models; in the field of vocabulary, the norm depends to a lesser extent on the system - the meaningful plan dominates the expression plan, moreover, the systemic relationships of lexemes can be adjusted under the influence of a new meaningful plan. In any case, the sign of the stability of the norm is projected onto the linguistic consistency (an extra-systemic linguistic means cannot be stable, sustainable). Thus, the norm, having the listed features, implements the following criteria for its evaluation: systemic criterion (stability), functional criterion (prevalence), aesthetic criterion (source authority). An objective linguistic norm is formed spontaneously by choosing the most convenient, expedient variant of a linguistic means, which becomes widespread and widely used. A strictly enforced rule in this choice is compliance with the language system. However, such a spontaneously established norm will not necessarily be officially recognized yet. What is needed is the codification of the norm, its legalization through official regulations (fixation in normative dictionaries, sets of rules, etc.). This is where some difficulties arise in the form of resistance to the new norms on the part of codifiers or the public, and finally, some group of professionals or "lovers of literature". As a rule, it looks like a ban on everything new. Purism is the desire, out of conservative motives, to keep something (for example, in a language) unchanged, to protect it from innovations (purism - fr. purisme, from lat. purus - pure). Purism is different. In the history of Russian literature, for example, ideological purism associated with the name of A.S. Shishkov, Russian writer, president of the Russian Academy since 1813, later minister of public education, who acted as an archaist who did not tolerate any innovations in the language, especially borrowed ones. In our time, one can come across taste purism, when linguistic facts are evaluated from the everyday positions “it cuts or does not cut the ear” (it is clear that the ear can have different sensitivity), as well as scientific purism, which deserves more attention, since it is able to influence when making recommendations. Most often, these are the emotions of a bibliophile, who is a prisoner of tradition. This is revealed in prohibitive recommendations placed in dictionaries, manuals, etc. In part, such purism can be useful, it has the quality of a deterrent. The norm is based on the usage, the custom of use, the codified norm officially legitimizes the usage (or in some particular cases rejects it), in any case, codification is a conscious activity. Since codifiers, both individual scientists and creative teams, may have different views and attitudes, different degrees of manifestation of prohibitive intentions, often recommendations in officially published documents do not coincide, especially with regard to stylistic marks in dictionaries, fixing a number of grammatical forms, etc. Such disagreements testify not so much to the fact that when covering linguistic facts, when establishing a norm, different criteria can be used, but to the inconsistency of the linguistic material itself: the language is rich in variant forms and structures, and the problem of choice sometimes turns out to be difficult. In addition, the "language policy" of the moment is also taken into account. At different stages of the life of society, it declares itself in different ways. The term originated in the 1920s and 1930s. and means conscious interference in speech practice, the adoption of protective measures in relation to it. At present, the state of our statehood and the state of society are such that protective measures in relation to social and speech practice, no one thinks. The literary norm is clearly being shaken, and above all by the mass media. The phrase "linguistic lawlessness" began to be used along with others, where the internal form of this former slang word (lack of measure in anything that is evaluated negatively) is actively manifested - administrative lawlessness, legal lawlessness, lawlessness of power, army lawlessness, etc. This word became so widely used (in different contexts) that even in dictionaries it acquired new marks, in particular, in the Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova of the 90s of the edition, the word is presented with the mark “colloquial”, although before this period the word was not included at all in this dictionary as belonging to criminal jargon. The modern popularity of the word could not go unnoticed in the linguistic environment: articles are devoted to it, many pages in monographs 1 . So, the codification of the norm is the result of normalizing activity, and the codifiers, observing the speech practice, fix the norm that has developed in the language itself, giving preference to the option that is most relevant for a given time. Norm and occasionalism. General language norm and situational Normativeness rests on linguistic consistency and takes shape in the objective processes of linguistic development. In parallel, of course, on a different scale, the process of individual language creation takes place. Writers, poets, journalists need to create new words and word forms. This is how occasionalisms arise (from Latin occasio, genus item occasionis - occasion, occasion) - individual, single neologisms. Naturally, they are not included in the concept of usage and norm. Occasionalisms can be found in any writing

For the first time, a holistic concept of active processes in the Russian language is givenke, based on the study of oral and written speech in various fieldsthe life of society. Active processes in the Russian language of the end are highlighted20th century - in pronunciation and stress, in vocabulary and phraseology, in word formationvaniya and morphology, in syntax and punctuation. Race language changesviewed taking into account the internal sources of language development against the background of historyical transformations in the life of society. Widely represented languagevariation in its relation to the literary norm. Particular attention isleno to the vocabulary of the media as the most obvious sourceno changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language.

For students of higher educational institutions studying in the directionpits and specialties "Philology", "Linguistics", "Journalism", "Booksbusiness", "Publishing do editing". Of interest tolinguists, philosophers, culturologists, press workers, literary critics,teachers and teachers, as well as a wide range of readers.

Book's contents:

Foreword
Principles of the sociological study of language
Laws of language development
Language sign variance
(The concept of variance and its origins. Classification of options)
Language norm
(The concept of the norm and its features. Norm and occasionalism. General language and situational norm. Motivated deviations from the norm. Main processes in the normalization of linguistic phenomena)
Changes in Russian pronunciation
Active processes in the area of stress
Active processes in vocabulary and phraseology
(Basic lexical processes. Semantic processes in vocabulary. Stylistic transformations in vocabulary. Determinologization. Foreign borrowings. Computer language. Foreign lexemes in Russian vernacular. Non-literary vocabulary in the language of modern printing)
Active processes in word formation
(The growth of agglutinative features in the process of word formation. The most productive word-formation types. The production of names of persons. Abstract names and process names. Prefix formations and compound words. Specialization of word-building means. Interstep word formation. Collapse of names. Abbreviation. Expressive names. Occasional words)
Active processes in morphology
(Growth of analyticism in morphology. Shifts in forms of grammatical gender. Forms of grammatical number. Changes in case forms. Changes in verb forms. Some changes in adjective forms)
Active Processes in Syntax
(The dismemberment and segmentation of syntactic constructions. Attaching terms and parceled constructions. Two-term constructions. Predicative complexity of the sentence. Activation of inconsistent and uncontrollable word forms. Growth of prepositional combinations. Tendency towards the semantic accuracy of the utterance. Syntactic compression and syntactic reduction. Weakening of the syntactic connection. Correlation between affective and intellectual in the field of syntax)
Some trends in modern Russian punctuation
(Point. Semicolon. Colon. Dash. Ellipsis. Functionally-targeted use of punctuation. Unregulated punctuation. Author's punctuation)
Conclusion
Literature
Approximate program of the discipline "Active processes in modern Russian"

Social causes of modern language dynamics. Domestic Laws development of language: consistency, tradition, economy, contradiction (antinomy of the speaker and listener; usage and possibilities of the language system; code and text; antinomy due to the asymmetry of the language sign, antinomy of two language functions - informational and expressive, antinomy of two forms of language - written and oral ).

The concepts of "language norm" and "system". The history of the formation of norms in Russia. Types of norms (phonetic, lexical, grammatical, spelling and punctuation; imperative and dispositive norms). Features of the norm (stability (stability), widespread, mandatory). Norm criteria (functional, structural, aesthetic). Norm and language policy. Norm and linguistic purism. Motivated deviations from the norm.

The concept of "literary language". Features of the literary language (normativity (exemplary), common use, long-term cultural processing). The concept of variability and the reasons for its appearance. Classification of variants (accent, phonetic, phonemic, grammatical (morphological and syntactic), spelling and punctuation.

Variants and synonyms. Options and irregularities (speech errors). Norm and occasionalisms.

Changes in Russian pronunciation in the late 20th - early 20th centuries and their causes: the influence of social factors (an increase in the pace of language dynamics, an orientation towards live communication, looseness of norms, less correction of sounding speech, the influence of the printed word), aesthetic (taste preferences) factors and intralinguistic factors (mobility and morphologization of Russian stress). Accent tendencies (tendency towards rhythmic balance, grammaticalization, restoration of the pronunciation of the source language and Russification). Stress as a stylistic device (semantic-stylistic function of stress).

Changes in the Russian vocabulary of the late XX - early XX centuries (the rapid growth of the dictionary (neological boom); the weakening of officiality; freedom of speech, understood as freedom of speech; intensification of borrowings). External causes changes in vocabulary and the processes they generate (archaization of vocabulary denoting the realities of Soviet reality, the return of words from the storehouses of the language, the “split connotation” of words, the creation of new phraseology, political vocabulary, the emergence of iconic words of the era, depoliticization and deideologization of vocabulary, the revival of vocabulary associated with spiritual traditions). Processes related to the internal essence of the language: expansion, narrowing of the meaning of words, their rethinking, the creation of new words according to known word-building models, the formation of composite words, etc.

Stylistic transformations in vocabulary (stylistic neutralization of high book words; entry into the neutral, commonly used dictionary of elements of colloquial speech, jargons, highly professional words; stylistic redistribution, increased metaphorism). Determinologization. foreign borrowings. Computer language. Non-literary vocabulary in the language of the modern press and the reasons for its appearance (psychological and pedagogical, socio-political, cultural and educational).

The main trends in the word-formation system of the Russian language. Communication of social and intralinguistic processes in word formation. Social needs and active ways of word formation.

The growth of agglutinative features in the structure of the derived word. Change in the productivity of word-formation types: the growth of the class of nouns into -fication, -ization; activation of feminine nouns with adjective endings; expansion of the circle of words producing relative adjectives; growth of the class of nouns with suffixes -ost, -tel, -shchik. Specialization of meanings of word-building models; terminological formations.

Specialization of word-formation means (distribution of relations of generating stems with word-forming affixes; standardization of meanings of word-forming types, elimination of doublet formations). Changes in the meanings of suffixes. The process of transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones.

Keywords (words that are in the focus of social attention) as the basis of word production. Proper names as the basis of word-formation chains. Models of words-characteristics, words-evaluations. Growth of nominal prefixation. Abbreviation as a way of word formation and as a means of expression. Prefixation of foreign verbs. Irregular word formation. "Reverse" word formation.

Major trends in morphology. The growth of analyticism (the use of zero inflection, indeclinable forms of words, nouns of a general gender, nouns of a collective meaning). Consolidation of short forms. Concretization of the meanings of grammatical forms. Changes in the use of grammatical forms of gender, number, case. usage trends. Number forms. usage trends. Case forms. usage trends.

Economy of speech means, clarification of the meaning of the statement, dismemberment of syntactic constructions. Strengthening the independence of syntactic forms of words. Tendency towards fragmentation and dismemberment of syntactic constructions. Activation of nominative structures as a consequence of the movement towards analyticism. Strengthening the expressive qualities of syntactic units. The growth of structural contamination. Trends in the development of the structure of a simple sentence (prepositive and postpositive nominatives; joining, parcelling; weakening the grammatical cohesion of word forms). Trends in the development of the structure of complex and complicated simple sentences (structural displacement, contamination). Syntactic compression and syntactic reduction. Weakening of the syntactic connection of word forms. The growth of prepositional constructions.

Some trends in punctuation. Historical changes in the functions of punctuation marks. Code of Punctuation Rules (1956) and Modern Sign Practice. The concept of ad hoc punctuation

General editing

Aspects of editorial analysis of the text. The structure of editorial analysis by text units. Units of text as a speech work. Graphic units of text. Editorial analysis on multi-purpose mental operations. Mental planning of the text. Isolation of semantic strongholds. Correlate the content of the text with your own knowledge. Correlation according to the content of different parts of the text. visual representations. Anticipation of the content of the text.

Techniques and methods of working on the author's original. Analysis and evaluation of the composition of the work. Types and subtypes of text construction. Analysis and evaluation of headings. Working title. Listing rules. Analysis and evaluation of factual material. Techniques for checking the actual accuracy of the text. Citation rules. Analysis and evaluation of the text from the logical side. The laws of logic and the quality of the text. Analysis and evaluation of language and style.

Preparation of the reference apparatus of the publication. Publishing apparatus. output information. Annotation. Abstract. Bibliographic material. Content.

Direction and stages of work on the publication. Reasons for the relevance of the profession of editor. The concept of editing. Editing and criticism. Editing and reviewing. Stages of the editor's work on the text. Types of text editing. Disciplines of editorial orientation.

The word as an object of editorial analysis. The lexical meaning of the word. Sememe as a microstructure of the family. Denotative and connotative semes. Component analysis as a method for revealing the seme structure of a word. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of words. The concept of phraseology. The main types of textual errors caused by non-observance of systemic relations in the vocabulary. Stylistic meaning of the word. Common, book and colloquial vocabulary. Stylistic mistakes. The grammatical meaning of the word. Errors associated with incorrect word formation and word forms.

The proposal as an object of editorial analysis. The offer and its key features. Formal, semantic and communicative syntax. The theme is a rhematic articulation of a sentence. Modus-dictum organization of the sentence. Grammar syntactical errors.

Text as an object of editorial analysis. The concept of "text" in modern linguistics. Signs and categories of text. Connectivity of the text. Text integrity. Title functions. Title requirements. Articulation of the text. The concept of the stylistic affiliation of the text. Styles of the modern Russian language.

3. Modern literary process

The concept of "modern literature" in Russia. Main trends: realism, artistic journalism, rural prose, religious prose. Existential psychological prose (V. Makanin. "Underground, or the hero of our time", F. Goreshtein "Psalm"). "Women's prose" (L. Ulitskaya, V. Tokareva, L. Petrushevskaya, D. Rubina, M. Arbatova). "Third wave" of postmodernism (T. Tolstaya). Postmodern tendencies in modern dramaturgy. “New drama” of the 21st century (M. Ugarov “Bummer off”; monodramas by E. Grishkoovets “How I ate a dog”, “Winter”).

The main trends in the development of literature in the second half of the twentieth century. "Magical Realism" (G.G. Marquez. "One Hundred Years of Solitude"). Postmodernism as a type of worldview and a literary phenomenon. Ironic rethinking of tradition in the work of J. Fowles. F. Begbeder's novel "Windows on the World": the relevance of the topic, the features of its artistic solution.

Poetics of the modern domestic bestseller. Classical literature of the 19th century and its traditions in the bestseller (Akunin B. Turkish Gambit. State Councilor).

Modern foreign bestseller. Connection of modern mass literature and cinema. J. Rowling's Harry Potter books and their cinematic versions.

Problems of the study of mass culture, mass literature as part of mass culture. Literary and aesthetic gradation in popular literature. Triad "classics/fiction/mass literature". Mass writer and mass reader in a new socio-cultural situation. The Image of the Reader as an Organizing Dominant of Mass Literature.

GENERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

SEI OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"SAMARA STATE AEROSPACE UNIVERSITY

NAMED AFTER ACADEMICIAN S.P. QUEEN"

INSTITUTE OF PRINTING

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLISHING AND BOOK DISTRIBUTION

TEST

by discipline

"ACTIVE PROCESSES

IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE"

on the topic: "Euphemisms in modern Russian speech

on the example of materials

print and electronic Russian media"

Completed by: student of group No. 4311z

Murtazaeva Irina Olegovna

Checked by: Pryadilnikova Natalya Viktorovna

Samara 2008

WORK PLAN

Introduction

1. Definition and classification of euphemisms in linguistic literature

2. The specifics of euphemization

2.1. Target settings

2.2. Topics and areas

2.3. Language means and methods

3. Euphemisms as a means of manipulation in the language of the media

Conclusion

List of literature used

Introduction

In modern Russian, stylistically neutral words or expressions are increasingly used instead of a synonymous language unit, which seems to the speaker (writer) indecent, rude, harsh or tactless. In the linguistic literature, this widespread process is given the term "euphemization".

It is noteworthy that, quite "sensitive" to public assessments, euphemisms often change their status, turning into unacceptable rudeness, requiring another euphemistic replacement. At one time, B.A. Larin wrote: "Euphemisms are short-lived. An essential condition for the effectiveness of euphemism is the presence of a" rough "," unacceptable "equivalent. As soon as this implied unpronounceable expression goes out of use, the euphemism loses its" ennobling "properties, as it passes into the category of" direct "names, and then requires a new substitution.

Another linguist L.P. Krysin notes that "the tougher the social control of the speech situation and the self-control of the speaker of his own speech, the more likely the appearance of euphemisms; and, on the contrary, in poorly controlled speech situations and with high automatism of speech (see communication in the family, with friends, etc. .) "direct" designations, or dysphemisms, that is, more rude, disparaging designations, may be preferred to euphemisms

The object of study of this work is the euphemistic vocabulary of the modern Russian language. The subject of the study is its features and application scenarios.

The empirical basis of the study was euphemistic units: words, phrases, sentences extracted from journalistic, official business and scientific texts.

1. Definition and classification of euphemisms in linguistic

literature

The term "euphemism" was used by ancient authors. Its genesis is well known: the term itself comes from the Greek words "good" "rumor" ("speech"). Initially, it was interpreted as the utterance of "words that have a good omen, refraining from words that have a bad omen (especially during sacrifices), reverent silence" . Such an understanding of euphemism brings it closer to taboo, but does not equalize it. Subsequently, the second part of the definition ("reverent silence") was lost.

In the XX-XXI centuries. a number of works were prepared specifically devoted to the problems of euphemistic vocabulary or affecting it in connection with other linguistic phenomena [Paul G., 1960; Shore P.O., 1926; Larin B.A., 1961; Krysin L.P., 1996; Kurkiev A.S., 1977, Senichkina, 2006 and others].

In the linguistic literature there are various formulations of the concept of "euphemism". In most of them, as the main feature of euphemism, its ability to replace, "veil" unpleasant or undesirable words or expressions is considered.

For example, O.S. Akhmanova offers the following definition: "Euphemism (antiphrasis) is a trope consisting in an indirect, covered, polite, softening designation of an object or phenomenon" [Akhmanova, 1967].

Perhaps one of the most successful is the formulation of L.P. Krysin, who defines euphemism as "a way of indirect, periphrastic and at the same time softening designation of an object, property or action..." [Krysin, 2000].

There are different views on the classification of euphemisms. However, all of them reveal a common reason for the euphemization of speech - the desire to avoid the conflict of communication.

According to B.A. Larin, it should be based on the "social nature of euphemisms". He identifies three types of euphemism:

1) commonly used euphemisms of the national literary language;

2) class and professional euphemisms;

3) family and household euphemisms. [Larin, 1961]

In a historical retrospective, the first and second groups converge, and in the movement towards the future, the second group melts to the point of complete disappearance. The third group of euphemisms, which are used primarily in colloquial speech, is characterized by a limitation to the range of ideas from the field of human physiology and anatomy.

A.S. Kurkiev distinguishes five groups of euphemisms, classifying them according to generative motives:

1) arising on the basis of superstitions (sick - unhealthy, ill);

2) arising from a feeling of fear and displeasure (kill - beat, slam, kill);

3) arising on the basis of sympathy and pity (the patient is not all at home);

4) generated by modesty (illegitimate - bastard, skolotysh);

5) generated by politeness (old - in years, advanced age). [Kurkiev, 1977]

L.P. Krysin, in turn, believes that there are two areas of euphemization - personal life and social life.

V.P. Moskvin believes that "euphemisms are used in six functions:

1) to replace the names of frightening objects;

2) to replace the definitions of various kinds of unpleasant, disgusting objects;

3) to denote what is considered indecent (the so-called everyday euphemisms);

4) to replace direct naming for fear of shocking others (etiquette euphemisms);

5) for "masking the true essence of the signified";

6) for designations of organizations and professions that seem to be not prestigious" [Moskvin, 2007].

E.P. Senichkina adheres to a broad approach to understanding euphemisms, sharing the point of view of A.A. Reformatsky, L.P. Krysin and other scientists and believing that euphemisms are characteristic not only of neutral, but also of other styles of the Russian language.

E.P. Senichkina proposes to distinguish the following types of euphemisms: taboo euphemisms, optional euphemisms, de-euphemisms, historical euphemisms, euphemisms by origin, linguistic and occasional. To classify euphemisms, the scientist proposes to apply a morphological approach. This classification is based on the criterion of lexical and grammatical relatedness of words representing the category of semantic uncertainty.

3conclusion

The modern Russian language is increasingly enriched with various euphemisms. From the definition of euphemism, it follows that it is not only more adequate to the communicative situation, but also "more appropriate" than the replaced word. Obviously, in the process of euphemization, there is a decrease in the degree of obscenity.

Euphemisms can be classified on several grounds.

Unlike ordinary vocabulary, euphemisms are extremely sensitive to public assessments of certain phenomena as “decent” and “indecent”. The historical variability of the status of euphemism is connected with this: what seems to be a successful euphemistic name for one generation, in the next generations can be regarded as an undoubted and unacceptable rudeness that requires a euphemistic replacement.

Euphemism as a way of indirect, periphrastic and at the same time softening designation of an object, property or action is correlated with other speech methods - with litotes, meiosis, oxymoron, etc.

The process of euphemization is closely intertwined with the process of nomination - one of the three fundamental processes that form human speech activity (the other two are predication and evaluation). Objects that, for ethical, cultural, psychological, and any other reasons, are not named or named with difficulty, need a euphemistic designation; the renewal of nominations is dictated by the need to again and again veil or soften the essence of what is considered inconvenient, indecent, etc. in a cultural society.

Euphemism has its own specifics. It manifests itself both in the linguistic essence of euphemism, and in topics that are most often euphemized, in the areas of use of euphemisms, in the types of linguistic methods and means by which they are created, in the difference in social assessments of euphemistic ways of expression.

Euphemisms have a huge manipulative potential, which is used in the language of the media. Manipulative euphemisms either obscure, hide the true state of things, or demobilize public opinion, since a softened, neutral formulation does not evoke reciprocal irritation in the mind of the recipient, unlike a direct nomination.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. ENCYCLOPEDIAS AND DICTIONARIES

Akhmanova, O.S. Dictionary of linguistic terms [Text]. - 4th ed., stereotype. - M. : KomKniga, 2007. - 576 p..
The Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2007 [Electronic resource]: Modern. univ. grew up encycle. : 14 CD [Elec. text and graphics Dan.: more than 88 thousand articles, 39 thousand multimedia objects, 860 audio and 570 video fragments, more than 520 maps in the interactive atlas of the world]. - 7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Cyril and Methodius, 2006. - Zagl. from the cover.
Weisman, A.D. Greek-Russian Dictionary / Reprint of the 5th edition of 1899 - M .: Greek-Latin Cabinet Yu.A. Shichalina, 2006. - 706 p.
Dal. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language [Electronic resource]. - Electron. text data. - M. : IDDC GROUP, 2005. - 1 CD. - Zagl. from the screen. - Add. material: Full author's text "Proverbs and sayings of the Russian people"; "About the beliefs, superstitions and prejudices of the Russian people".
Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary of F. Brockhaus and M. Efron [Text]. - M. : EKSMO, 2006. - 986 p.
Krysin, L.P. Explanatory dictionary of foreign words [Text]. - M. : EKSMO, 2005. - 944 p. - (Series Dictionary Library).
Ozhegov, S. I., Shvedova, N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language [Text] / Sergey Ivanovich Ozhegov, Natalia Yulyevna Shvedova. - 4th ed., add. - M. : ITI Technologies, 2005. - 944 p..

2. TEXTBOOKS AND TUTORIALS

Valgina, N. S. Active processes in the modern Russian language [Electronic resource]: textbook. for universities / Nina Sergeevna Valgina; Mos. state University of printing. - Electron. text, graph. Dan. - M.: State. University Press, 11/20/2002. - flash resource. - (Library of Moscow State Unitary Enterprise). - Zagl. from the screen.
Senichkina, E. P. Euphemisms of the Russian language [Text]: special course: textbook. allowance for student universities, training in special. "Philology" / Elena Pavlovna Senichkina. - M: Higher School, 2006. - 151 p.

3. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

Baskova, Yu. S. Euphemisms as a means of manipulation in the language of the media: based on the Russian and English languages [Text] : author. dis. ... cand. philol. Sciences. / Yulia Sergeevna Baskova; Kuban. state un-t. - Krasnodar: [b. and.], 2006. - 23 p.
Vavilova, LN To the question of euphemization of modern Russian speech [Electronic resource] // Russian and Comparative Philology. System-functional aspect: Sat. m-fishing scientific. conf. February 5-10, 2003 / Kazan. state un-t. - Kazan website. state university - Access mode: http://www.ksu.ru/fil/kn7/index.php?sod=11
Kovshova, M. L. Semantics and pragmatics of euphemisms: A brief thematic dictionary of modern Russian euphemisms [Text]: monograph. / Maria Lvovna Kovshova. - M. : Gnosis, 2007. - 320 p.
Krysin, L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech [Electronic resource] // Russian philological Internet portal " Philology.ru". - Access mode: http://www.philology.ru/linguistics2/krysin-94.html
Kurkiev, A.S. On the classification of euphemistic names in Russian. Classification of euphemisms by generative motives [Text] / A. S. Kurkiev. - Grozny, 1977.
Larin, B. A. On euphemisms [Text] / Boris Aleksandrovich Larin // Larin B. A. Problems of linguistics: Sat. articles dedicated to 75th anniversary of acad. I. I. Meshchaninov. - L .: Leningrad State University, 1961. - (Uchen. zap. Leningrad. un-ta, No. 301: Ser. philol. Sciences: Issue 60). - S. 110-124.
Moskvin, V.P. Euphemisms in the lexical system of the modern Russian language [Text] / Vasily Pavlovich Moskvin. - 2nd ed. - M. : Lenard, 2007. - 264 p.
Paul, G. Principles of the history of language / Per. with him. ; Ed. A.A. Kholodovich. - M.: Izd-vo inostr. lit., 1960. - 500 p.
Shor, R.O. Language and Society / Rozalia Osipovna Shor. - M.: Worker of education, 1926. - 152 p.

Extralinguistic ( from lat. extra - outside + lingua - language) - extralinguistic, extralinguistic; belonging to real or imaginary reality, but not to language or linguistic reality.

Obscene vocabulary - from lat. obscenus (disgusting, obscene, obscene) - a segment of abusive vocabulary, including the rudest (obscene, obscenely vile, vulgar) swear words, often expressing a spontaneous verbal reaction to an unexpected (usually unpleasant) situation. Linguists share concepts profanity And taboo vocabulary from obscene language. Obscene language is just one of these two linguistic phenomena.

Swearing and obscenity should not be confused. Swearing may not be obscene (fuck you!), One of the varieties of obscene vocabulary in the Russian language is Russian mat.

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