The influence of man on nature. Positive and negative influence: examples. seasonal changes
Behavioral work
Animal
The main objectives of the work on observing the behavior of the animal are:
√ in developing the method of observation and improving the skills of students to observe;
√ in the formation of ideas about the behavior of animals;
√ in obtaining and improving practical skills in describing, recording and interpreting externally observed activities, mental states of animals.
After doing homework a seminar is held with an analysis of the observations made, an analysis of typical shortcomings and a discussion of the most successfully completed work.
In this work, the method of "participated observation" is used, that is, the observer is present in the field of view of the animal (does not hide), communications between the animal and the observer are not excluded (if they occur during the observation period, they must be recorded).
The observer influences the observation situation by introducing a new object into the field of view of the animal. The choice of the nature of the object depends on the type and temperament of the animal and general situation observations. The observer himself decides which object will be introduced into the field of view of the animal. An important condition observation of the animal in this task is to change the behavior of the animal. If the animal ignores the introduction of a new object into the field of view, i.e., the new object does not cause any change in the behavior of the object of observation, this should be recorded in the protocol and another object should be selected.
Observation is carried out using continuous time-based logging. In other words, the observation protocol records all the external manifestations of the animal per unit of time. The protocol is filled out every minute.
You can observe any animal (domestic, wild, familiar or not familiar to the observer), in any environment (natural or specially organized by the observer).
Animal observation is carried out from 10-30 minutes (depending on the type of animal and the observed activity) to 2-3 hours.
The conditions for starting filling out the observation protocol are that the observer himself must cease to be a new object for the observed animal by the beginning of fixing the behavioral reactions of the animal. When modeling the situation in the third or fourth minute of observation, the animal is provided with a new object. The introduction of an object into the field of view of the animal IS RECORDED in the protocol.
If necessary (clarification of the obtained data, expansion of the experience of observing different types of animals), repeated observations are carried out for the same animal or for others. Comparison of observations of two animals allows for an additional estimate.
General principles keeping records of observations.
Firstly, it is necessary to build records in such a way that each observation protocol is provided with the following information:
1) date of observation (indicating the year);
2) start time and end time of observation;
3) place of observation;
4) observation conditions (temperature, and if the animal is outside, then wind, cloudiness, precipitation; the presence and number of people near the enclosure, the presence of other animals);
5) the general condition of the animal at the beginning of the observation - normal, inactive, agitated, in pain, etc.;
6) sufficiently detailed data on the observed animals (species, sex, name and/or number);
7) surname and signature of the person who conducted the observations.
If observations are made on separate sheets, then all information should be on each sheet, if the entry is in a journal, then the data common to all observations, as well as the abbreviations used, can be placed on the title page.
Secondly, the records should reflect objective changes in the external state of the animal, while the same external manifestations should be equally reflected in the records in all cases.
EXAMPLE: Let's take an example to illustrate this point. Assume that the observer uses three expressions to indicate the posture of a lion lying with its head on its paws and closing its eyes: "The lion is lying", "The lion is sleeping", "The lion is resting". With external similarity, these records do not mean the same thing at all. In the first case we are talking about the posture of the animal, that is, about its position in space, which is recorded completely objectively; the second statement characterizes the physiological (or mental) state of the animal; both objective (in obvious cases) and subjective assessments are possible here; finally, the third phrase contains an assumption about the reasons why the animal exhibits certain forms of behavior, it is clear that all assumptions of this kind are purely subjective. If, moreover, the observer writes each time what seems to him the most suitable, then, wanting to find out how often the lion manifests this or that state, the observer actually learns only how often it seemed to him. In addition, no quantitative comparison of the frequencies of manifestations of such diverse elements (which in this case completely overlap) cannot be justified at all.
The situation becomes even more complicated if the observer applies estimates of the 2nd and 3rd kind, not being able to understand the essence of the occurring phenomenon. For example, a person who does not know that the wide opening of the mouth - "yawning" - in monkeys is a sign of an aggressive mood, is likely to regard these actions, by analogy with human yawning, as a sign of a state of drowsiness.
Third, entries must be made neat enough so that they can be easily read, all symbols (icons, letters) must be deciphered.
Fourth, to observe behavior means to note changes in the external state of the animal. These changes can be extremely diverse (in principle, any, the most insignificant movement is a change in the external state).
If some movements and changes in the appearance of the animal fit into the complex of fixed external manifestations of a species-typical reaction, then it is permissible to use an abbreviated description of this reaction. At the same time, it is necessary to describe in the notes to the observed phenomena what is included in the recorded reaction. Let's look at this situation with an example.
EXAMPLE: The cat reared its fur - a change; raised her hair, arched her back, flattened her ears, bared her teeth and hissed. All this together can be called "assumed a menacing posture." It is possible to indicate in the protocol of observation common name all behavioral manifestations (“took a threatening posture”). BUT in the notes it is necessary to decipher what objectively observed changes are included in the concept of "threatening posture":
“The classic menacing posture of a cat: All four legs of the cat are tensely extended, it seems to be standing on tiptoe, the back is arched in a hump, the tail is curved, and the hair on the back and tail stands on end. The threat is complemented by appropriate facial expressions: the ears are pressed to the back of the head, the nose is wrinkled, the fangs are bared, the corners of the mouth are pulled back. The cat purrs and periodically hisses"
All the actions of the same cat during a fight with another cat (and these actions include “furry rearing”, and “threat posture” and much more), if compared with the state of the animal before meeting with an individual of its own species, are also a change.
This example demonstrates the possibility of describing behavior at various levels - from elementary movements of individual parts of the body to complex and long-term unfolding behavioral ensembles (for example, the reproductive behavior of a stickleback includes building a nest, guarding it, attracting a female, courtship ritual, fertilization of eggs, etc.) .
At what level to carry out the description - it depends on the objectives of the study, on the questions posed, however, in order to be able to quantitatively compare the results obtained with each other, all units of behavior used in describing the actions of the animal must have the same dimension, i.e. Some of them should not be included in others as components (as, for example, "raising the wool" is included in the "pose of threat").
The most common way to describe the actions of an animal is with the help of conventional icons, each of which corresponds to one of the selected elements of the ethogram. When designing an icon system, you should choose simple, easy-to-write symbols. The use of additional service icons significantly increases the possibility of recording (for example, double underlining of the icon indicates the mutual direction of actions, a question mark after the action icon - an unsuccessful attempt to perform this action; an exclamation mark - the forced nature of the action in relation to the recipient, etc.).
A well-thought-out recording order allows you to quickly, compactly and conveniently “stack” information for subsequent reading. For example, at the beginning of the record, the time of the beginning of the action is indicated, then its initiator (No., letter index, nickname or other short designation of a particular animal). Further - the symbols of actions in their natural sequence; after the description of the actions, they indicate the object to which they were directed (in the case of social interactions), concludes the record with the end time of the action.
Video recording can be used to record observations. This allows you to keep an eye on the animal without looking away. The records made must be deciphered and rewritten in the diary of observations, while the time for decoding is spent approximately twice as much as for the observations themselves. The presence of video recording allows you to increase the rating.
Part of the time of observation, the animal may hide in a shelter, or for other reasons be inaccessible to the observer. We recommend immediately, in the course of observation, to note how long the animal was in the observer's field of view. If the animal disappeared from view before a new object was introduced into the field of view, the observation of the animals should be repeated or the observation time should be increased by marking in the protocol the period of time when the animal was not available for observation.
The work is done according to the template below.
Purpose of observation(for example: follow the dog's orienting and exploratory activity in a new environment).
Observation conditions(for example: observing the behavior of a dog in natural conditions during the first visit to a summer cottage).
Observation Protocol
Observer (full name) _________________________________________________
Date __________ Start and end time of observation _______ – _______
Place of observation _____________________________________________
Conditions (temperature; and if the animal is outside, then the wind, cloudiness, precipitation; the presence and number of people near the enclosure, etc.) ___________
___________________________________________________________
general characteristics animal:
View _________________________________________________________
Gender __________ Age ___________
Nickname or number: ___________________________
Animal status (active, passive, health status) ____________
Simulation of the situation:
Characteristics of an object new to the animal, to which it is supposed to cause an orienting reaction: __________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Significance for the animal (food, frightening object, toy, neutral object) ____________________________________________________________
Size.____________________________________________________________
Method of introduction into the field of view of the animal _____________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Distance ________________________________________________________
Description of the animal's behavior at each time interval (minimum 10 minutes): Time (per minute) Animal behavior, change in appearance
©2015-2019 site
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page creation date: 2017-10-25
The general study includes the following sections: 1) determination of the animal's habitus; 2) examination of mucous membranes; 3) examination of the skin, coat and subcutaneous tissue; 4) examination of lymph nodes; 5) temperature measurement.
Determining the habitus of an animal
Inspection is the main research method here. Especially great importance he has in the examination of entire herds, broods of horses, in the evaluation of animals, mass examination at exhibitions, etc. Under these conditions, on the basis of a cursory examination, an idea is created about general condition animals - their fatness, maintenance, feeding, it is sometimes possible to identify patients and those suspected of a disease - groups are made to be rejected, selection is made according to one or another indicator, etc. An experienced doctor with good practical training performs such tasks so successfully that further research often makes only minor adjustments, emphasizing and shading the features of each case.
Some details of the changes detected by inspection have to be established with the help of palpation, which, in a general study, finds a greater use. To determine body temperature, thermometry is used, which, instead of subjective sensations of examination and palpation, already delivers accurate data.
Regarding the diagnostic value of a general examination, it should be noted that in some fairly common diseases, the clinical picture is filled with symptoms from this side, and the diagnosis is thus based on examination data. These include: tetanus, rabies, morbus maculosus, bovine puerperal paresis, and acetonemia. In the vast majority of cases, however, a general examination provides only individual signs, perhaps important ones, especially in assessing the condition of the animal, such as, for example, fever, the appearance of edema, but nevertheless completely insufficient for determining the nature of the disease. It can be hoped that further work on the patient and a special study will help to establish the picture of the disease so accurately that the goal of the study - making a diagnosis - will be achieved. Finally, there are cases when a study conducted with all punctuality does not notice any changes at all. Not infrequently, in such circumstances, even a special study gives only extremely vague signals, regarding which it is impossible even to say where, from which organ they come. The doctor finds himself in this position in case of chronic diseases of various organs of animals, in case of chronic virulent infections, etc. Careful observation of the patient, repeated examinations of him, and, finally, the use of certain methods from a number of specific ones, in such cases, often provide an enormous service, pointing to the right path, delivering exactly the information that was lacking in the process of making a diagnosis.
Definition of a gabit. si animal general research begins. Under the habitus understand the state of the patient at the time of research on physique, nutritional status, body position in space, temperament and constitution.
In creating the first impression of the patient and his condition, the habitus in general is of great importance, providing the kind of information that is important in any disease in general. In some cases, these data are guideline.
Rice. 1. Cretinism in a dog (according to Stang). Rice. 2. Rickets in a calf.
Body type are determined by inspection according to the degree of development (mass) of the skeleton and muscular skeleton, and only in extremely rare cases, for example, when determining the details of the physique, the therapist has to resort to the help of measuring instruments.
Depending on the mass of bones and muscle tissue, they say either good or thin physique. A good physique gives the impression of strength and strength. A good physique is characterized by strong legs with wide joints and massive, voluminous muscles; the chest is wide and deep, the ribs are steep, wide, with large intercostal spaces; the back is short; a closed and short loin turns into a massive and wide croup; the head is large, sometimes heavy, with a fleshy, heavy and short neck. With a good physique, you can count on good development lungs and heart, for sufficient intestinal capacity. An animal with a good physique shows maximum resistance to various harmful influences, and in case of diseases it turns out to be the most enduring, giving a significantly higher percentage of recovery. And only as an exception can be noted a few diseases (rheumatic hemoglobinemia of horses, morbus maculosus, puerperal paresis and acetonemia of cattle), which mainly affect animals of good physique and good nutrition.
With a thin physique, the animals are weak, frail, fragile, weak; they seem to be flattened laterally. A long, narrow body, with a flat chest and a long back, a long loin and an open sigh, is set on long and thin (liquid) legs; light, dry, neat head suspended on a thin, long and flexible neck.
With a bad physique, cattle often become a victim of tuberculosis; calves are especially susceptible to paratyphoid, dictyocaulosis; horses die from catarrhal pneumonia, chronic alveolar emphysema and heart disease; poorly built puppies are often disfigured by rickets or die due to the plague.
Power status gives an idea of the balance of metabolism. Here, just as in assessing the physique, one should not begin with details. The state of nutrition is determined along the contour lines - their softness, roundness and completeness, or, conversely, rough angularity, sharpness; use in case of need
Rice. 3. Rickets. Softening of the bones. palpation, establishing the degree
high comb, belly under- Rice. 4. Wasting in the dog (according to Stang).
they pull, the pudendal olasty is deepened, the anus is far retracted.
Good fatness gives a reliable guarantee that the energy expenditure is fully balanced by its arrival. In cases where assimilation processes prevail over dissimilation processes, excess nutrient material is deposited in fat depots. Horses of heavy breeds, indoor dogs, cats, and especially pigs are especially prone to deposits of significant amounts of fat, as a result of which severe disorders of the function of certain organs sometimes develop. In such cases, one speaks of obesity.
Rice. 5. Squishy.
As a result of these or other influences, animals sometimes lose weight amazingly quickly, turning into real skeletons within some 3-5 days. This is observed in horses with an acute form of infectious anemia, with infectious encephalomyelitis, with acute glanders, in all animals with rabies, in calves and piglets with paratyphoid and white diarrhea. However, the highest degrees of emaciation are more often the result of chronic infectious and
invasive diseases - tuberculosis and paratuberculosis,
chronic glanders, piroplasmosis, chronic infectious anemia, dictyo-caulosis, fascioliasis and gadfly disease of sheep. Sometimes emaciation is noted only on individual organs, even with good overall fatness. Here it should be noted atrophy of muscle groups with ankylosis of the joints, atrophy of the croup with flabby paraplegia.
The position of the body in space. The doctor has to observe and examine patients in various positions, with a different position of their body. When examining, the most comfortable position is the standing position, which guarantees flawless conduct of almost all details of the examination; small animals are more likely to be examined in a lying position or seated on a table. Sometimes some aspects of the study require observation of the animal while moving.
Healthy animals, left to their own devices, can easily change the position of their body at will, giving it those postures that correspond to volitional impulses. Unlike this kind voluntary provisions still distinguish forced positions, when the animal is forced to maintain the posture created by the painful process, without being able to change it at will. The reasons for this are loss of consciousness, certain pains, dizziness, weakness, perhaps fear or muscle or nerve paralysis. However, when analyzing forced positions, especially lying down, one should not lose sight of the fact that animals often do not get up simply because they do not want to get up, for example, after eating, hard work, at high external temperature, due to extreme phlegm, etc. To to make sure that the animal is really not able to get up, one has to resort to various coercive measures - shouting, patting on the ears, croup, clicking with a whip, showing tasty food, etc. e. And only in those cases when, despite all the measures of influence and help in trying to get up, a change in position turns out to be impossible, it is recognized as forced. Pulled out these provisions are extremely a valuable sign, clearly characterizing the disease process and the patient's condition.
Forced lying position in the horse it is included in the clinical picture of rheumatic and enzootic hemoglobinemia, the last phase of tetanus, the lethargic form of infectious encephalomyelitis, transverse lesions of the spinal cord and all diseases associated with loss of consciousness. In cattle, it characterizes the laying of cows before and after calving, puerperal paresis, the last phase of acetonemia, and transport sickness. Small cattle, pigs and carnivores during severe processes, especially febrile ones, generally prefer to lie, huddled in a corner (dogs), buried deep in the litter (pigs). When trying to pick them up, the animals get up, sluggishly and reluctantly take a few steps and lie down again, accepting the same
Rice. 6. Tetanus.
location. Thus, if for large animals forced lying is the central symptom of a limited range of diseases, determining the nature of suffering, then in small animals it is observed too often and shades only their condition.
Forced standing seen predominantly in horses. It is characteristic of tetanus, pleurisy, pleuropneumonia, all diseases associated with severe dyspnea, as well as a number of brain diseases.
Each of the described positions of the body, in space, both voluntary and forced, can be further: a) physiological and b) non-physiological. The latter is one of the most common symptoms of certain sufferings, involuntarily drawing attention to itself with its unusualness. Especially characteristic is the position of the body with tetanus, when the horses stand with legs apart, like goats, with an elongated head and neck, a tensely straightened back, ears pulled back and a raised tail. In severe febrile illnesses, they keep their heads helplessly lowered and stand with half-closed eyes, alien to everything. In the lethargic form of infectious encephalomyelitis and tetanus, horses lie stretched out with their heads and necks extended, and the limbs of the side of the body facing upwards are held in weight without touching the ground.
IN forced movement, differing in great diversity, are important in the pathology of the horse. These include: a) aimless wandering, b) arena movements, c) clockwise movements, d) forward movements, e) backward movements. In small animals, in addition, there are: e) roll-like movements. Forced movements are complex, sometimes well-coordinated, extremely monotonous movements that occur only under the influence of a pathological process, as a result of irritation of the corresponding centers. Since such movements appear to the observer to be completely unrelated to external influences, they do give the impression of being involuntary or forced.
Aimless wandering is usually observed with anatomical
Rice. 7. Elongated position of the head with pharyngitis.
brain damage and functional disorders. In Born's disease, equine encephalitis (American and French), infectious encephalomyelitis, acetonemia of cattle, coenurosis, animals wander for hours, moving from one place to another in a state of some kind of stupefaction. Movements are poorly coordinated, animals
Rice. 8. Progressive osteitis.
they stagger, stumble, do not notice obstacles, climb walls, feeders, not responding at all to external stimuli, excluding, perhaps, auditory ones. Sometimes these movements are full of energy and strength and resemble the gait of a horse hurrying to the house, horses, a foal, etc. Even obstacles are sometimes unable to stop the movement, only changing its shape. Stopping in front of a wall, falling into a ditch, lying on its side, the animal does not stop making habitual movements on the spot.
Manege movements are for the most part well-coordinated movements in a circle in a certain direction, and the diameter of the circle either remains unchanged or gradually decreases. In the first case, the animals sometimes walk in the accepted direction for hours; when the diameter of the circle decreases, the arena movements turn into clockwise movements, which more often end in an unexpected fall. They are usually the result of damage to the corresponding center of the cerebellum, thalamus opticus, ganglia of the cerebrum or unilateral shutdown of sensitive receptors in diseases associated with disorders of consciousness or increased intracranial pressure.
Movements of the hour hand are more often observed in the direction of rotation of the clock hand, sometimes in the opposite direction. They represent the rotation of the entire body of the animal around one of any legs as a fixed point. Similar movements are characteristic of paralysis of the item vestibularis and lesions of the cerebellum. Experimentally, they can be caused by destruction of the thalamus opticus, nucleus ruber, and anterior colliculus.
Rice. 9. Striving forward with brain diseases (but to Makarov).
my striving forward, which cannot be weakened or suspended. Movements are usually hurried and not always strictly coordinated. The limbs are often entwined, there is a staggering of the buttocks, stumbling, sometimes a fall or even overturning of the body. The localization of changes can be the centers of the occiput or torso, corpus striatum, as well as the retina.
Moving backwards is sometimes the only possible form of movement. It is observed occasionally in infectious encephalomyelitis and cerebrospinal meningitis and is usually associated with contractures of the occiput and spasms of the spinal muscles. Due to arching of the hind limbs, tilting of the head and severe coordination disorders, backward movement quickly leads to a fall or even capsizing of the animal. It is experimentally possible to induce this form of movement after the removal of the cerebellum.
Roll-like movements are often observed in small animals: dogs, cats, and especially birds. They represent the rotation of the animal's body around the longitudinal axis. At the same time, everything is often limited to only one turn or even half a turn, in other cases, movements continue until they are stopped by some obstacle on the way. They are usually associated with unilateral lesions n. vestibularis, cerebellar peduncles or their surrounding parts.
Temperament determined by the speed and degree of reaction to external stimuli. The criterion is the expression of the eyes, the reciprocal movements, for example, the play of the ears, and the whole behavior of the animal. Distinguish between lively and sluggish temperaments.
Horses of a lively temperament are distinguished by the ability to quickly perceive: they are always attentive, vigilantly watching their surroundings, sensitively responding with a play with their ears, a change in gaze, facial expressions to perceived impressions from the outside world, show impatience before work, before giving food, haste in eating; their movements are full of energy and strength, they are the most valuable workers in almost every economy.
However, a sharply pronounced lively temperament at the same time presents some inconvenience, and sometimes makes the animal completely unsuitable for work. Horses of a lively temperament are often too impressionable, disobedient, stubborn, angry, shy, sometimes maim people, animals, often break the harness.
The phlegmatic temperament is manifested by just the opposite properties. Animals are lazy, lethargic, little mobile and stupid.
For the therapist, temperament matters in the sense that, in severe suffering, it is sharply reflected in the behavior of the animal. Strong pain sensations are especially painful for animals of a lively temperament and, conversely, are less disturbing for phlegmatic people. And vice versa, with severe febrile illnesses, horses of a lively temperament at first glance do not give the impression of being seriously ill, keeping their appetite and vigor longer, while phlegmatic people under these conditions do not pay any attention to their surroundings and seem hopeless. Thus, when evaluating the forecast, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of temperament.
Constitution. The constitution is understood in veterinary medicine as a combination of all influences that determine one or another degree of resistance of tissues, organs and the whole organism in the fight against harmful factors. This general resistance is very different and depends on the resistance of each individual tissue and the nature of each individual stimulus, and thus is by no means always a constant value.
Astrakhan sheep is considered extremely resistant, as it easily puts up with the harsh conditions of Central Asia - lack of water, tropical heat, dry and scarce food, but, translated into conditions humid climate and abundant green vegetation, it does not acclimatize well and often dies from inflammation gastrointestinal tract, dictyocaulosis.
When evaluating the constitution, it must be remembered that, along with the morphological features of the organism, which are easy to measure and evaluate, purely biological properties of tissues matter here and, in addition, the properties of the germ plasm, its genotinic structure, which determines the development of the cell. It is about this direction. Thus, the constitution is determined by three factors: exterior, interior And heredity.
According to Bogomolets, the constitution "leaves its mark on the whole organism V its whole, reflecting not only on the morphology of the individual, but also on the individual nature of his physiological reactions.” For the therapist, the reaction to the influence of various painful factors is especially important. From this point of view, since the time of Hippocrates, a strong and a weak constitution have been distinguished. Animals of a strong constitution easily put up with unfavorable conditions. temperature influences, high humidity, the action of cold winds, drafts, they tolerate deprivation well - hunger, strong stress, and are less sensitive to a number of infectious diseases, and after infection they easily recover. Animals of a weak constitution in this respect are the exact opposite.
The desire to give more accurate description constitutional types, which could be widely used in practical terms, led to the creation of various kinds of numerous classifications. Of these, Shigo's (Sigaud) classification has become widespread in myo-icin, which distinguishes 4 main types: respiratory, muscular, digestive and cerebral. Attempts to transfer this classification to animals have not been successful, since within one species, for example, in cattle, it is not possible to establish enough characteristic features for each type. Thus, in relation to animals, this classification, as a four-term one, cannot withstand empirical verification, and is also inconvenient when constructing variational series.
From this point of view, the classification of Kretschmer (Kretschmer) is more consistent, which distinguishes three main types: 1) asthenic ^ (lep-tosompy), 2) athletic (muscular) and 3) pyknic.
Rice. 10. Asthenic type.
Zaitsev, who worked on the study of constitutional types in horses, gives them the following characteristics.
Asthenic type characterized by a long chest, a long neck, a light head, with relatively poorly developed lower jaw and chewing muscles, and a tucked up abdomen. A well-developed, significant lung is characterized by poor development of connective interlobular tissue. A voluminous massive heart but in relation to the total body weight is much larger than in other types. The network of blood vessels is well branched. The liver is relatively small. The small intestine is shorter than other types. Representatives of this type are Arabian and English horses, as well as American and Russian-American trotters.
For picnic type characterized by a short chest, a massive croup with wide-set mokloks, a massive head with a strongly developed lower jaw and chewing muscles, a short neck and a voluminous belly. Animals are distinguished by great strength, but far from being so mobile. Ardennes, percherons, and partly heavy artillery horses fit this characteristic.
Rice. 11. Picnic type
Muscular type occupies a middle position between those just described. The best representatives of this type are mestizos of trotting and heavy horses, and
Rice. 12. Muscular type.
also convoy and well-built working horses, which are distinguished by well-developed muscles, strong bones, sufficient snares and mobility.
Zaitsev's measurements of height, torso length, chest girth behind the shoulder blades and metacarpus girth according to six main indices, processed using the method of variation statistics, made it possible to establish a profile for each type.
At the same time, “in horses of a muscular type, the profile is usually located close to the midline, while in picnics it will go above the midline and only at the end drops down. The corresponding curve for asthenics, on the contrary, goes below the middle line, at the end rising up ”(Zaitsev). However, the differences between the main constitutional types are not limited to purely morphological features of the body structure. These differences go much deeper, reflecting on the function of the main systems. According to Chernorutsky, there is a certain kind of correlation between the constitutional type and the functional capacity of the body. Thus, the respiratory capacity of the lung in asthenics is higher than in picnics; on the contrary, their blood pressure is somewhat lower, the content of calcium and uric acid is also much lower.
Significant differences are further established by hematological examination. In trotters, according to Zaitsev, the number of erythrocytes and hemoglobin is higher than in draft horses and working horses. The diameters of erythrocytes, their surface and volume in trotting horses are also greater than in draft horses.
Thus, the exterior of the animal is closely related to its internal features (interior). This makes it possible to use constitutional features as a criterion not only in assessing the performance of an animal and its productivity, but also in a therapeutic sense.
N.N. Meshkova, E.Yu. Fedorovich
“A varied and lengthy survey of a new territory, periodically resuming its re-examination, allows synanthropic rodents - house mice, gray rats to know the environment well and respond to the slightest changes in it. Studies have shown that these animals notice not only the appearance, but also the disappearance, rearrangement of objects, and even their replacement with similar ones (Meshkova et al., 1992; Fedorovich and Meshkova, 1992). After noticing a change, the animals immediately interrupt their “daily” activities (for example, feeding, patrolling the territory), and all activity, as it were, “pulls” to the places of changes, the examination and reexamination of which are resumed several times.
Experiments with changing the environment familiar to the animals made it possible to reveal the patterns of deployment of exploratory behavior under these conditions, as well as to trace the features of the construction and functioning of the image of the environment in animals, its dependence on the characteristics of the individual, its motivational state, and the characteristics of life (Fedorovich, Meshkova, 1992; Fedorovich, in oven).
In a 4x4 m enclosure, a "living room" was recreated, imitating a human dwelling. A group of unfamiliar animals was simultaneously released into the room. After 4 - 5 days, the "room" was fully functionally mastered by them, relations in the group stabilized; further work was carried out only with groups in which clear hierarchical relationships were formed with despotic dominance of one of the males. On the sixth day after the animals were released, 7 changes were made simultaneously in the "room" setting. the following types: disappearance, replacement, rearrangement, appearance of objects. The main part of the material is presented on the basis of E. Yu. Fedorovich's thesis, completed at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. The behavior of gray rats under similar conditions was studied by A. V. Belousova, a student of the biological faculty of Moscow State University.
We assumed that the rank of an animal in a group poses specific life tasks for an individual, determining its way of life, the system of relations with various components of the environment. This determines to a large extent the peculiarities of the functioning and development of each animal's mental reflection, the image of the environment that regulates its behavior.
To establish the influence of the rank of the animal on the probability of occurrence and the nature of the course of orienting-exploratory activity in each group, we analyzed the behavior of two males - the dominant and the active subordinate (subdominant). These two categories of animals were chosen for the following reason: with a pronounced “dominance-submission” relationship between them, these individuals had approximately equal motor activity and, at the same time, moved throughout the territory. The hierarchical position among females, with rare exceptions, was expressed implicitly; inactive subordinates - "outcasts" - activity was limited to small areas of the room and was reduced mainly to quick runs from shelter to places of feeding, therefore, in most places of occurrence of changes, they did not happen.
As a result of the observations, it was revealed that the dominants and active subordinates differed in a number of quantitative and qualitative behavioral indicators in relation to changes.
Dominant individuals, resuming activity in a changed environment, detected changes after a longer period of time than subdominant ones, and only on the 2nd - 5th time they were near the places where they occurred. In general, at the first approach, dominant males noticed 19% of the changes, and active subordinates - subdominants - 75%. Cm. Figures 5 - 8 Applications, in the same place the plan of the "living room".
It should be noted that most often from the first time those changes were noticed that appeared in the open in the places most visited by animals, near the centers of activity and movement routes. However, we did not reveal an unambiguous dependence of the instantaneous observation of a change on the place of its occurrence.
We combined the cases of not noticing the "novelty" by analyzing the situations of finding the animals next to it, into 4 groups.
1 . Dominant individuals do not notice the appearance of changes, pursuing, looking for subordinate animals or females. Here are some examples. The dominant male twice ran near the appeared house to the sound of the subordinate jumping, but noticed him only when he stumbled upon this object during the chase. The dominant from the other group "hunted" for the subordinate, who just at that time was eating the bait from the trap that had just been set (Gero's flat crusher). Being aimed at the object of his "hunt", the dominant drove the subordinate straight into the trap. And only the next time, being in the same area, the dominant male noticed the appearance of a trap and examined it. The same dominant passed, almost touching sideways to another trap, following the trail of the subordinate, but noticed and began to examine it, only returning back. Many times we have observed how dominants, having run in the course of chasing a member of the group throughout the "room" and, accordingly, past most of the changes, without reacting to them in any way, noticed them in a calm state, showing neophobia.
Thus, one of the dominants even attacked an animal sitting on a new flower pot, without showing neophobia towards the new object, although before that it “did not dare” to approach it several times. Often, dominants noticed an object that appeared or rearranged only as a result of a direct collision with it, again during chases, or as a result of an attack on other members of the group who were examining these objects at that moment. In such cases, the pursuit ceased, and the dominant male either bounced frightenedly from the "unexpected" object, or proceeded to carefully examine it. Sometimes the dominant male, in an excited state, mistook a new object for the desired subordinate and attacked him. So, the dominant male ran into a small flower pot three times in a row and bit it. The same was observed in gray rats - the dominant male, after sorting out relations with rats from a neighboring group, approached a new bottle in a threatening pose and tried to attack it.
2 . Subordinate mice ran past the changes made to escape persecution. A whole range of examples gives us the behavior of inactive subordinates, "outcasts". These animals, running along short routes from shelter to food and back, as a rule, did not react to the changes that appeared. One of these animals, having a shelter in one of the graduation houses, did not "notice" the disappearance of others standing nearby, although it ran out of its shelter 5 times during the observation period.
3 . Mice (more often subordinates) ran past the changes, purposefully moving from shelters to feeding points after sleep or, when the dominant was activated, to shelters.
4 . Both dominants and subordinate animals did not notice some changes while examining others.
Thus, one of the males passed by the new house for the first time, distracted by sniffing the tracks left by the observer. We have seen how an examination by an animal of one change, important for the performance of its vital functions, for a long time "did not make it possible" to notice and/or examine another, located nearby. So, three subordinate mice from different groups showed the same pattern: each of them walked ten centimeters from the flower pot that appeared (in other situations it was noticed from 1 meter), focusing in the direction of the place where the chair used to be, on which these individuals were a refuge. On their way back, these mice froze in front of the "unexpected" pot that appeared in front of them, ran away to the side, and then approached and examined it. In several groups, the dominants noticing the appearance of a new house near their shelter (suitcase) for the entire three hours of our observations distracted these animals from examining other changes. Attempts to get close to this subject from different sides (the house caused a strong neophobia) were interspersed with chases and the search for subordinates throughout the "room". However, the dominants again and again returned to attempts to start an examination of this subject, without reacting in any way to the appearance of other changes. One of the dominant animals found and several times examined a hole dug by wild mice under the mesh floor of the "room". The exit of this hole was located between the place where the chair we had removed was located and the set pot. The dominant did not pay attention to these changes and did not examine them.
A. V. Belousova described a case when a rat, approaching a peak that greatly frightened her, walked along a new trap that stood in her way, noticing it. Subsequently, the trap greatly frightened this female.
Thus, we have seen that changes may or may not be noticed the first time, depending on the motivational state of the animal, the direction of its activity at the given moment. First of all, the most significant changes for each individual at this very moment are noticed. N.Yu. Voitonis (1949) considered such non-observation by animals of even biologically significant changes in the environment as a manifestation of an attitude, mobilization of the body for one activity that is relevant at the moment.
Although the dominant individuals moved throughout the entire volume of the "living room", in general they did not notice all the changes made - an average of 4.0 out of 7 possible; spread - from 1 to b. While subordinate animals noticed and examined on average 6.4 out of 7 possible changes, the range is 3-7. Most often, dominant individuals noticed and showed the most pronounced neophobia and exploratory behavior in relation to objects that appeared for the first time or in a new place; disappearance, as well as the replacement of objects, if these changes were not related to their life activity (for example, a shelter could be in a rearranged house), they did not notice, or examined very little (1-3 approaches). Subdominant individuals noticed changes of all types, except for the disappearance small items, unless they were again connected with their vital activity.
It was rather unexpected for us to see how carefully and variously interestingly these animals examine the place from which any object was removed. Here specific example. A chair was taken out of the room. The mouse, running from this place at a distance of about one and a half to two meters, suddenly stopping and turning its head towards the removed object, froze. This was followed by a series of orientation posts from different places, while the mouse was spinning, running from cover to cover along a large diameter around. Then, with more or less alertness, the animal approached directly to the area of the floor over which the chair stood, and passed it, making frequent small zigzags - sniffing the floor and changing the direction of movement after 2 - 3 steps. Sometimes the animal stopped and made a series of spatial orientation stands in different directions. Sometimes he would run off to the side, orientate himself there, then approach the changed place again, passing it in small zigzags (see Fig. 8 of the Appendix).
One more example. The researchers were removing a broom that was leaning against the leg of one of the chairs. Most often, the disappearance of this object was noticed by mice from the seat of a chair, above which the handle of a broom towered. The mice spun on the edge of the seat, looking down, alternating this with orientation posts, ran back to the other end of the seat, oriented from there to the side where the broom had previously risen. Then the animals went up and down several times along the leg of the chair, against which the broom was leaning, and, finally, bypassed, making small zigzags, the area on the floor on which the broom was directly leaning.
When some of the graduation houses were moved, the animals examined both the moved houses themselves and the place from which they were removed.
On the whole, for active subordinate animals, cases of noticing changes from afar were typical, as well as purposeful approaches to them, as a rule, without pronounced signs of iophobia. Examination of "novelty" - long (on average 10 - 12 seconds, in some cases up to three, and even six minutes (!) Continuously), the chain of actions for the examination at the first approach consisted of 4 - 10 actions. As we have already said, dominant animals did not notice the changes made for a longer time, part of the detection of changes in them was associated either with an accidental collision with an object that appeared or rearranged, or with imitation of other individuals - the dominant approached the object that appeared for the first time, having previously observed other animals or animal that examined it. In 95% of cases, the first approach of dominants to changes followed after other mice had been nearby and examined him.
A striking distinctive feature of the behavior of this category of animals on initial stage acquaintance with the changes that had taken place, there was a strong neophobia towards them. During all three hours of observations, some individuals did not “dare” to approach at least one of the new objects we set up. Once we observed the manifestation of geophobia in relation to even an empty place from which graduation houses were removed. It is noteworthy that nsofobiya in relation to the changes made manifested itself not only before the first examination of them. Often, in dominant individuals, we noticed an alternation of not noticing a change when running past (when stalking or chasing a subordinate or a female in estrus) with the manifestation of neophobia towards him, in a different approach. One of the dominant males showed strongly pronounced neophobia towards the rearranged houses, and "did not dare" to approach them, bouncing each time to the nearest shelter. When he followed, running from object to object, one of the subordinate males, he hid behind these graduation houses without any signs of fear. This did not prevent the dominant from being wary of them at the subsequent resumption of their examination.
The manifestation of strongly pronounced neophobia towards new objects in dominant male gray rats, unlike other members of the group, was also described by A.V. Belousova under similar experimental conditions. Partly due to iophobia, the first contacts with "novelty" in dominant animals were fragmentary (1-3 seconds), the chain of actions for their examination consisted of 1-2 elements, the orienting-exploratory activity during subsequent approaches unfolded extremely slowly. The phenomenon of neophobia will be described in more detail below.
The fact that subdominant and dominant individuals noticed a different number of changes and, in addition, active subordinates, unlike dominants, noticed and examined mainly all types of changes, can be explained by the different representation, differentiation of environmental elements in the mental image of these animals. This is indirectly confirmed by the peculiarities of the nature of the movements of animals of both these categories until the day of changes, in a stable, familiar environment.
In general, the movements of dominant mice were less variable; in a calm indoor environment, they ran along the same routes connecting important areas for them, shelters, places of feeding and drinking. Movement along such routes was rapid, while the mice rather stereotypically ran around objects from the same side, went into shelters and left them in the same places and in the same way. Dominant individuals left running routes mainly in two cases: while chasing or spying on some mouse, and also when patrolling the territory, moreover, the dominant went around in turn those places that had previously discovered the desired individual, or followed in the footsteps of a runaway mouse.
Since the arrangement of objects did not change in all groups, dominants from different groups were generally characterized by similar routes of movement ( rice. 9 Applications).
For active subordinate animals, subdominant, the following was characteristic: after leaving the shelter and approaching food and water, they, as a rule, bypassed the territory. The trajectories of subordinate individuals did not form "paths" as in dominants, but were arranged "diffusely" ( fig.10 Applications). The subordinates also had short running routes, passing through which they moved stereotypically. The subordinate animals used them, in contrast to the dominant ones, most often when the situation in the room became tense: these routes connected the feeding grounds and the shelters.
In addition, it was in subdominant individuals, as already described above, that we observed the most interesting form of behavior - re-examination of a familiar, well-known territory - these animals went around the room with "binding" their movement to almost all ground objects located in the room, while re-examining and the objects themselves: they climbed inside, from above, went around the perimeter, sniffed. It can be assumed that such a re-examination led to a more detailed acquaintance with the objective situation of the "living room", and also contributed to the further observation by these animals of any changes in the environment.
Let's return to the behavior of the animals in the "living room" that we have modified. Thanks to an active, varied and prolonged examination of the changes that appeared, subdominant individuals quickly corrected their behavior, "drawing" the examined changes in the situation into the sphere of their life activity: for example, timely running around their new or rearranged objects during pursuits, using them as new shelters, observation posts, the first they began to feed from the set traps (unguarded in our experiments).
Another category - dominants for quite a long time did not take into account the changes in their life. So, in the course of chasing other members of the group, they often encountered objects that appeared or were rearranged. For example, one of the dominants knocked down the graduation house, moved to a new location, three times in a row during the same chase. We also observed how, after repeated examination of any change in the dominant, running up to him from the other side, they were "scared" of him (repeatedly showed neophobia).
One of the important factors determining the features of the orienting and exploratory activity of animals in a changed environment was the nature of the use of the place where the change took place, its significance for a particular individual. Changes made in the center of the zone of activity of a given animal, for example, near its shelter, were noticed (after a longer or shorter period of time) in 100% of cases by both active subordinates and dominants. For example, two pairs of shoes rearranged in place of each other were noticed and examined only by those dominants whose shelter was nearby - in a rag hanging from a chair, although all the dominants visited this area more than once during our observation. The disappearance of the broom was noticed by many subordinate animals, but for a long time and repeatedly this place was examined only by individuals that had shelter on the chair to which this broom was leaning - they zigzag around the floor area on which the broom rested, crawled up and down the chair leg , oriented from the seat, over which the broom handle towered. In general, producing changes near shelters or feeding grounds produced both the strongest neophobia and the strongest exploratory response.
Thus, as shown by the above observational data, the deployment of orienting-exploratory activity in conditions close to natural does not occur automatically in response to any changes in the environment familiar to the animal. The nature of the behavioral responses of animals in situations of "novelty" is largely determined not so much by the formal signs of the changes themselves (the nature of the changes, their size, etc.), but by the characteristics of the life activity of the animal itself (in our case, the general context of activity at the moment the animal is near change, its need-motivational state, the nature of the use of the territory on which the change occurred, the significance of the change for the animal).
Some of the above observations make it possible to draw a conclusion about the active nature of the animals' reflection of the environment, which manifests itself in this case primarily in the selective, "biased" nature of the perception of changes.
The active nature of mental reflection was expressed primarily in varying degrees of readiness of individuals to perceive changes in the environment, which was determined, in our opinion, by the significance of the very fact of the appearance of changes for the animal. The great readiness of subordinate animals to perceive and take into account changes was manifested in the following: active subordinate individuals, for whom it was significant to search for any new opportunities for adaptation to existing conditions through the establishment of new connections with the environment (primarily the search for new food sources and shelters), noticed most of the changes from the first time, as a rule, from afar, after which they purposefully approached him. (Some mice, climbing onto a tall object - a nightstand, oriented themselves from above, after which they climbed down and niches directly to some change, for example, to the place of a removed chair.)
Dominants whose position in the group depended on maintaining the existing hierarchical structure in the citypyPPE and a significant part of whose activity was reduced to searching, pursuing subordinates, for a long time did not notice the changes that had occurred, in general they saw less change, for a long time did not take them into account in their life.
It also seems to us that the fact that, in general, the manifestation of neophobia in relation to changes was not characteristic of subordinates, once again emphasizes the increased readiness of these animals to accept the changes introduced. Isolated cases of manifestation of ieophobia in subordinates were related to situations of unexpected observation of an object for an animal, in a place where it was supposed not to exist. We can also see the potential willingness of subordinates to perceive changes in the cases described above of regularly repeated non-re-examinations of the room of objects located in it.[I think this is where ethologists know. VC. ]
The group of cases where the examination of one, more significant change "did not allow" the animal to notice others, located nearby, as well as cases when the dominant, while chasing or tracking subordinates, does not notice "novelty" in the environment, once again confirms the active nature of the mental regulation of behavior. processes.
The presented material, it seems to us, convincingly shows that animals do not simply select incoming stimuli, filtering them sequentially according to "registers" - novelty, intensity, uncertainty of significance (Sokolov, 1960; Grashchenko, Latash, 1965;Barry, 1990), but they themselves actively scoop out necessary information required stimulus (Leontiev, 1979; Smirnov, 1985; Vilyunas, 1986;Latash, 1990). Moreover, "the stimulus that is being sought already has an interpretation, a meaning..." (Smirnov, 1985, p.6). What information, what objects, their properties and connections will be perceived by an individual, what content the mental image will be filled with, is determined by the animal itself, the whole context of its activity, its way of life.
neophobia
The impact of a change of scenery on a child
Many children, during various moves, begin to behave atypically - act up, whine, cry, and show anxiety. Especially often such symptoms appear during holidays, when traveling to other countries. The child behaves naughty and mischievous, and at this time the parents scold him and try to immediately “strangle” the rebellion with punishments and screams, not realizing that the child needs their warmth and care.
In order to make the journey as pleasant as possible, the child must be prepared ahead of time. It depends on the age of the baby. Very young people need to be told that the family is going to another place where the baby will always be with his parents, so he will be calm and good there. An older child can be lured with stories that he can see there, which attractions to visit, and meet other children. How older child, the more details you can tell him about the upcoming trip.
Things familiar to him can help make moving to a new place more calm and comfortable for the baby - it is advisable to take at least some of the child’s favorite toys, bright dishes, some items that he associates with home with him on vacation. This will make the atmosphere of any hotel room or sanatorium more familiar and homely, which will enable the baby to quickly get used to and feel safe.
For adult children, it is advisable to think over an entertainment program so that they are not bored and lonely. Moreover, in this case, it is not the scale of the event that matters (visiting discos, theaters), but taking into account the interests of the teenager. So, if a child is interested in modern cinema, then even a session in a small cinema will please him and bring more pleasant emotions than visiting the best gallery where the works of such famous artists like Ivan Shishkin, Kazimir Malevich, etc.
Most often, older children are nervous on vacation and begin to behave naughty precisely because they have nothing to do. While parents are relaxing and enjoying their vacation, children miss home and the kids from the yard. Therefore, more and more often, many parents choose separate holidays with teenage children, sending them to youth camps or leaving them at home in the care of relatives.
If you plan to travel to one of the exotic countries, you must definitely take care of normal nutrition for the child. And the smaller the child, the less obvious the change of food should be - the child's body cannot quickly rebuild, and quite often, while adults feel normal, tasting exotic dishes, children begin to get very sick, symptoms of poisoning appear. Therefore, even during a trip to distant countries, it is best to stay in hotels where there is European cuisine.
It is necessary to ensure that the child observes the rules of personal hygiene - often health problems during a change of scenery in children appear precisely because of non-compliance with elementary rules. Infections, other water can cause feeling unwell Therefore, parents should ensure that the child wash their hands, fruits, drink only bottled water before eating.
The most important task facing all mankind is to preserve the diversity of all organisms living on Earth. All species (vegetation, animals) are closely interconnected. The destruction of even one of them leads to the disappearance of other species interconnected with it.
From the very moment when man invented tools and became more or less intelligent, his comprehensive influence on the nature of the planet began. The more man developed, the greater the impact he had on the Earth's environment. How does man influence nature? What is positive and what is negative?
Negative points
There are pluses and minuses of human influence on nature. First, let's look at negative examples of detrimental:
- Deforestation associated with the construction of highways, etc.
- Soil pollution occurs due to the use of fertilizers and chemicals.
- Reducing the number of populations due to the expansion of areas for fields with the help of deforestation (animals, losing their normal habitat, die).
- The destruction of plants and animals due to the difficulties of their adaptation to a new life, greatly changed by man, or simply their extermination by people.
- and water by diverse and by people themselves. For example, in the Pacific Ocean there is a “dead zone” where a huge amount of garbage floats.
Examples of human influence on the nature of the ocean and mountains, on the state of fresh water
The change in nature under the influence of man is very significant. The flora and fauna of the Earth suffer greatly, water resources are polluted.
As a rule, light debris remains on the surface of the ocean. In this regard, the access of air (oxygen) and light to the inhabitants of these territories is hindered. Numerous species of living creatures are trying to look for new places for their habitat, which, unfortunately, not everyone succeeds.
Every year, ocean currents bring millions of tons of garbage. This is the real disaster.
Deforestation on mountain slopes also has a negative impact. They become bare, which contributes to the occurrence of erosion, as a result, loosening of the soil occurs. And this leads to destructive collapses.
Pollution occurs not only in the oceans, but also in fresh water. Every day, thousands of cubic meters of sewage or industrial waste enter the rivers.
And contaminated with pesticides, chemical fertilizers.
The terrible consequences of oil spills, mining
Just one drop of oil renders approximately 25 liters of water unfit for drinking. But this is not the worst. Enough thin film oil covers the surface of a huge area of water - about 20 m 2 of water. It is detrimental to all living things. All organisms under such a film are doomed to a slow death, because it prevents the access of oxygen to the water. This is also a direct human influence on the nature of the Earth.
People extract minerals from the bowels of the Earth, formed over several million years - oil, coal, and so on. Such industrial production, together with cars, releases huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which leads to a catastrophic decrease in the ozone layer of the atmosphere - the protector of the Earth's surface from the bearer of death. ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Over the past 50 years, the air temperature on Earth has increased by only 0.6 degrees. But this is a lot.
Such warming will lead to an increase in the temperature of the World Ocean, which will contribute to the melting of polar glaciers in the Arctic. Thus, the most global problem- the ecosystem of the Earth's poles is disturbed. Glaciers are the most important and voluminous sources of clean fresh water.
benefit of people
It should be noted that people bring some benefit, and considerable.
From this point of view, it is also necessary to note the influence of man on nature. The positive lies in the activities carried out by people to improve the ecology of the environment.
In many vast areas of the earth, different countries protected areas, reserves and parks are organized - places where everything is preserved in its original form. This is the most reasonable influence of man on nature, positive. In such protected areas, people contribute to the conservation of flora and fauna.
Thanks to their creation, many species of animals and plants have survived on Earth. Rare and already endangered species are necessarily listed in the Red Book created by man, according to which fishing and collection are prohibited.
Also, people create artificial water channels and irrigation systems that help maintain and increase
On a large scale, activities are also carried out for the planting of diverse vegetation.
Ways to solve emerging problems in nature
To solve problems, it is necessary and important, first of all, the active influence of man on nature (positive).
As for biological resources (animals and plants), they should be used (extracted) in such a way that individuals always remain in nature in quantities that contribute to the restoration of the previous population size.
It is also necessary to continue work on the organization of reserves and planting forests.
Carrying out all these activities to restore and improve the environment is a positive impact of man on nature. All this is necessary for the good of oneself.
After all, the well-being of human life, like all biological organisms, depends on the state of nature. Now all mankind faces the most the main problem- creation of a favorable state and stability of the living environment.
