Inflorescence flowers and botany. The municipal stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for Schoolchildren in Biology In the basket of the plant depicted
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1 1 ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD FOR SCHOOLCHILDREN IN BIOLOGY MUNICIPAL STAGE. 7 8 CLASSES Part one. There are four possible answers for each question. It is necessary to choose only one correct one and enter it in the table on the work sheet. 1. Mycobacteria are the causative agents of: a) syphilis; b) jaundice; c) tuberculosis; d) mycoses. 2. Kukushkin flax reproduces: a) by zoospores; b) seeds under adverse conditions; c) disputes; d) aplanospores. 3. Red algae differ from green and brown algae in that: a) red algae do not form chlorophyll a; b) red algae do not have a sexual process; c) unicellular red algae were not found; d) in life cycle red algae lack cells with flagella. 4. Of the listed algae, they are able to absorb organic matter from the environment: a) spirogyra and fucus; b) spirogyra and ulotrix; c) chlamydomonas and chlorella; d) kelp and fucus. 5. In the basket of the plant shown in the figure, the flowers are: a) reed; b) false-lingual; c) tubular and false-lingual; d) reed and tubular.
2 6. Strawberry leaves: a) pinnate; b) ternary; c) palmately complex; d) complex single leaf. 7. On the transverse section of the stem of a 3-year-old linden, you can see: a) cambium, inside from it is the core, and outside is the bark; b) cambium, wood inside from it, and bark outside; c) procambium, outside of it is bark, and inside is wood; d) procambium, the central cylinder is outside of it, and wood is inside. 8. In one cell of the pulp of a mature rowan fruit, under a microscope, plastids can be seen: a) leukoplasts, chloroplasts and chromoplasts; b) leukoplasts and chloroplasts; c) leukoplasts and chromoplasts; d) chromoplasts. 9. Underground seed germination is typical for: a) castor beans; b) lindens; c) pumpkins; d) English oak. 10. Resin passages are typical for: a) conifers; b) Compositae; c) umbrella; d) all of the listed plants. 11. What kind of blood is in the heart of the toothless: venous (with low content oxygen) or arterial (oxygenated)? a) venous; b) arterial; c) in the atria it is venous, and in the ventricle it is arterial; d) arterial in the left atrium, venous in the right atrium, mixed in the ventricle. 2
4 18. Which of the mammals is characterized by the absence of fangs in the dental system? a) red evening party; b) white hare; c) a wolf; d) mole. 19. Representatives of what class are worms? a) round-mouthed; b) mammals; c) reptiles; d) amphibians. 20. In passerine birds, a short powerful beak is associated with nutrition: a) seeds; b) fruits; c) large animal food; d) insects. 4
5 Part two. You are offered test tasks with multiple answer options (from 0 to 5). Indexes of correct answers / yes (e) and incorrect answers / no (n) indicate in the table on the form of the work with the sign "X". Sample filling in the table: 1 yes / no yes no a X b X c X d X d X 1. Flowering plants growing in water are characterized by: a) poor development or absence of mechanical tissue; b) good development mechanical tissue; c) good development of wood, which ensures the movement of water through the plant; d) the presence of large intercellular spaces in the tissues of roots, leaves and stems; e) predominance of xylem in bundles and poor development of phloem. 2. In the composition of the leaf vein, one can find: a) sieve tubes with satellite cells; b) vessels; c) sclerenchyma; d) corner collenchyma; e) parenchyma. 3. In club mosses, horsetails and ferns, roots are formed: a) main with lateral; b) chief; c) accessory; d) side; e) main with subordinate. 4. Asexual reproduction by budding or detachment of body parts occurs in: a) roundworms; b) annelids; c) intestinal; d) shellfish; e) echinoderms. 5. The organs of the lateral line in fish serve to: a) determine the direction and speed of the current; b) determination of the chemical composition of water; c) detecting the approach of a predator or prey; d) detection of underwater obstacles; e) orientation in space along the lines of the magnetic field. 5
6 6 Part three. The task of determining the correctness of judgments. Enter the numbers of the correct judgments in the table on the work sheet. 1. Body lower plants always represented by a thallus with large leaves. 2. The thorns of the hawthorn are modified shoots. 3. The seed embryo at the earliest stages of germination is heterotrophic. 4. Lungfish are an extinct group of fish from which the first amphibians originated. 5. Mixins do not have a larval stage in the development cycle. 6. All representatives of the phylum Chordates are dioecious animals. 7. Regeneration in polyps occurs due to the division of skin and muscle cells. 8. All invertebrates use external fertilization. 9. The bulk of the muscles in birds is located on the ventral side. 10. The group of skin glands of mammals includes sweat, sebaceous and milk glands.
7 7 Part four. Fill in the tables on the work form in accordance with the requirements of the assignments. 1. The figure shows a cross section of a conductive bundle of corn (Zea mays). Correlate the main structures of the conducting bundle (AD) with their designations: A wood parenchyma; B sclerenchyma; into the air cavity; G vessels; D phloem.
8 8 2. The figure shows a cross section of a spruce needle. Match the designations in the figure (1 5) with the names of the structural elements: A epidermis; B resin course; at the stoma; G conducting beam; D mesophyll.
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Task 1. "Reproduction of flowering"
Task 3. “Flower. General characteristics"Give your answer in one sentence: 1. How many species does the Angiosperms department unite? 2. Life forms of flowering plants? 3. What is the flowering sporophyte represented by? 4. What is the male gametophyte of flowering plants? 5. What is the female gametophyte of flowering plants? 6. What are the main aromorphoses that led to the appearance of flowering plants? 7. What are flowering microsporangia? 8. What are flowering megasporangia? 9. What are flowering gametangia? 10. When does meiosis occur in the life cycle of flowering plants - during the formation of gametes or spores? 11. What develops from microspores and megaspores of flowering plants? 12. What group do flowering plants belong to - equal or heterosporous plants? Task 4. "Evolution of plants"Look at the picture and answer the questions: |
1. First flowering plants appeared (_).
2. Flowering descended from (_).
3. Evantieva, strobilar hypothesis of the origin of the flower suggests that the flower (_).
4. According to the Pseudanthian hypothesis, the flower is (_).
** Task 6. "The origin of the flower"
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
1. Write down under what numbers the signs characteristic of monocotyledonous plants are drawn.
2. Write down under which numbers the signs characteristic of dicotyledonous plants are drawn.
3. Which plants, dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous, are more ancient?
Task 8. "Dicotyledonous plants"
The number of cotyledons in the seed embryo - (_). The reserve nutrients in the seed can be found in (_), in (_), or (_).
The leaf petiole is more common (_). Cambium in the stem (_). Conductive bundles in (_) type are located in the stem (_). root system usually (_). Secondary stem and root thickening (_). Life forms are (_) and (_) plants. The number of flower parts is usually a multiple of (_) or (_). Perianth more often (_).
Task 9. "Monocotyledons"
Write down the question numbers and missing words (or groups of words):
1. The number of cotyledons in the seed embryo - (_).
2. Reserve nutrients in the seed are in (_).
3. Leaf venation is usually (_).
4. The petiole of the leaf is more common (_).
5. Cambium in the stem (_).
6. Conductive bundles in (_) type, located in the stem (_).
7. The root system is usually (_).
8. Secondary thickening of the stem and root (_).
9. Life forms - (_) plants.
10. The number of flower parts is usually a multiple (_).
11. Perianth more often (_).
Task 10. "Cruciferous family"
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
How many species are in the Rosaceae family? What are the life forms of the plants of the family? What is the formula for the Rosaceae flower? Try to guess: who are the five brothers, two are bearded, two are beardless, and the last fifth seems to be a freak - only a beard on the right, there is not a trace on the left. What are the fruits of the plants shown in the picture? What kind of leaves do rosaceae have? What groups of plants are distinguished in the family?
Task 12. "Family Legumes"
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
|
How many species are in the legume family? What are the life forms of the plants of the family? What is indicated in the figure by the numbers 1 - 8? What is the formula for a legume flower? What inflorescences are typical for legumes? What are the fruits of beans? What are the leaves of the legumes shown in the picture? What is the significance of the plant family? Why are legumes called "plant-based veal"? Why are legumes called "living fertilizer"?
Task 13. "Solanaceae family"
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
|
How many species are in the Solanaceae family? What are the life forms of the plants of the family? What is the formula for nightshade flower? What are the fruits of nightshade? What are nightshade leaves? What is the significance of the plant family? What poisonous plants of the family do you know?
Task 14. "Family Compositae"
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
How many species are in the Asteraceae family? What are the life forms of the plants of the family? What flowers are numbered 1-4? What inflorescence do all plants of the family have? What fruits (5) do Compositae have? What is the significance of the plant family?
Task 15. “Class Monocots. Liliaceae family»
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
How many species are included in the Liliaceae family? What are the life forms of the plants of the family? What is the formula for a lily flower? What are the fruits of lilies? What underground shoots are typical for lilies? What is the significance of the plant family?
Task 16. “Class Monocots. Family Cereals»
Look at the picture and answer the questions:
1. What number indicates the cruciferous diagram? flower formula? Fruit?
2. What number indicates the diagram of Rosaceae? flower formula? Fruit?
3. What number indicates the diagram of legumes? flower formula? Fruit?
4. What number indicates the nightshade chart? flower formula? Fruit?
5. What number indicates the Compositae diagram? Flower types? inflorescences? Fruit?
6. What numbers indicate the diagrams of monocots? flower formulas? Fruit?
Answers:
Exercise 1. 1. 1 - ovules; 2 - embryo sac; 3 - stamen; 4 - pollination; 5 - germination of the pollen tube; 6 - double fertilization; 7 - seed; 8 - seedling, developing sporophyte. 2. Seeds are formed inside the pericarp.
Task 2.
Flowering |
||
1. Number of species 3. Male gametophyte 4. Female gametophyte 5. Fertilization 7. Ovules 8. Location of ovules 10. Tracheids in xylem 11. Tracheae in xylem 12. Sieve cells in the bast 13. Sieve tubes in the bast 14. Life forms | About 700 species Missing pollen grain Endosperm with two archegonia Sperm + egg Missing Are formed Two on the scale of the female cone Are formed Missing Only arboreal, trees and shrubs |
Are formed pollen grain embryo sac Are formed Are formed Inside the ovary of the pistil Are formed Trees, shrubs, herbs |
Task 3. 1. About 250 thousand species. 2. Trees, shrubs, shrubs, shrubs, lianas, herbaceous plants. 3. Leafy plant. 4. Pollen grain. 5. Embryo sac. 6. Appearance of flower and fruit. 7. Pollen nests of the anther. 8. Nucellus in the ovule. 9. None. 10. When a dispute is formed. 11. Gametophytes. 12. Heterosporous plants.
Task 4. 1. Sporophytes in algae are often absent, diploid zygote; in mosses - a box on a leg; in club mosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants - a leafy plant. 2. Gametophytes in algae are more often represented by a thallus that forms gametes; in mosses - a leafy plant; in club mosses, horsetails and ferns - outgrowth, in gymnosperms - pollen grains and endosperm with two archegonia; in angiosperms - pollen grain and embryo sac. 3. The development of the sporophyte and the reduction of the gametophyte occur.
Task 5. 1. In the Mesozoic era in the Cretaceous period. 2. From non-specialized ancient gymnosperms. 3. This is a modified shortened spore-bearing shoot, originally resembling a cone of gymnosperms. Megasporophylls developed into carpels, microsporophylls into stamens. 4. Collection of reduced strobili of different sexes, fused together.
Task 6. 1. 1 - apocarpous; 2 - syncarp; 3 - lysicarpous (carpels grow together laterally, but their walls are then destroyed with the preservation of the central column, to which the ovules are attached); 4 - paracarpous (occurs as a result of fusion of carpels by the edges). 2. Monocarp. 3. Syncarp, lysicarp, paracarp. 4. Coenocarpous gynoecium, in which the boundaries of fusion are invisible, and the only nest of the ovary bears only one ovule.
Task 7. 1. Signs of monocots: 2, 3, 4, 5, Signs of dicots: 1, 6, 7, 8, Dicots are more ancient.
Task 8. 1. Two. 2. Endosperm, perisperm or cotyledons. 3. Mesh. 4. Present. 5. Available. 6. Open; round. 7. Rod. 8. Happens. 9. Herbaceous and woody plants. 10. Four or five. 11. Double.
Task 9. 1. One. 2. Endosperm. 3. Arc or parallel. 4. Missing. 5. Missing. 6. Closed; at two and large quantity rings. 7. Fibrous. 8. Missing. 9. Usually herbaceous plants. 10. Three. 11. Simple.
Task 10. 1. About 3200 species. 2. Herbaceous plants predominate. 3. *Ch4L4T2 + 4P1. 4. Pods or pods. 5. Simple and complex. 6. Vegetable and ornamental plants.
Task 11. 1. About 3000 kinds. 2. Herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees. 3. *Ch5L5T∞P1, *Ch5L5T∞P∞., or *Ch5+5L5T∞P∞ 4. Rosehip sepals (see figure). 5. Rosehip - false fruits from a concave overgrown receptacle (tsinarodium) and inside real fruits - nuts; cherry - drupe; strawberries - false fruits from a convex overgrown receptacle (fraga, or strawberry) and real nuts (multi-nuts); blackberry - combined drupe (multi-drupe); apple tree and pear - apple. 6. Simple and complex. 7. Fruit and berry, decorative.
Task 12. 1. More than 12,000 kinds. 2. Trees, shrubs, herbs. 3. 1 - sepals; 2 - sail; 3 - oars; 4 - boat; 5 - pestle; 6 - ten stamens; 7 - bean fruit; 8 - nodules on pea roots. Ch(5)L1+2+(2)T(9)+1P1 or Ch(5)L1+2+(2)T(10)P1. 5. Brush, head. 6. Beans. 7. In peas - pinnate; in beans - trifoliate; in peanuts and yellow acacia - pinnate; in lupine, they are palmately complex. 8. There are food plants (peas, beans, soybeans), there are ornamental plants (caragana, or yellow acacia, robinia, or white acacia, sweet pea), fodder (clover, alfalfa), medicinal plants (melilot). 9. Contain a lot of protein. 10. Nitrogen compounds formed by nodule bacteria remain in the soil along with the roots.
Task 13. 1. About 3000 kinds. 2. Herbs, shrubs, in tropical latitudes - even trees. 3. *Ch(5)L(5)T5P1. 4. Berry or box. 5. Simple and complex. 6. Food plants (potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, annual peppers), decorative plants (petunia, fragrant tobacco). 7. Henbane, dope, belladonna, tobacco.
Task 14. 1. About 25,000 species. 2. Herbaceous plants, shrubs are found in tropical countries. 3. 1 - tubular, 2 - reed, 3 - false reed, 4 - funnel. 4. Basket. 5. Achenes. 6. Food (sunflower, lettuce); decorative (asters, dahlias, chrysanthemums); a lot of medicinal plants(dandelion officinalis, chamomile officinalis).
Task 15. 1. About 4000 species. 2. Perennial herbaceous plants. 3. *O3 + 3T3 + 3P1. 4. Berry or box. 5. Rhizomes and bulbs. 6. Vegetable (asparagus, onion, garlic); decorative (lilies, tulips, hyacinths, aloe), medicinal ( raven eye, May lily of the valley).
Task 16. 1. 1 - spikelet scales; 2 - flower scales; 3 - pistil with two forked fluffy stigmas; 4 - stamens; 5 - two flower films; 6 - straw stalk; 7 - leaf sheath; 8 - the fruit of the grain. 2. Most are herbaceous plants, but there are shrubs and woody forms. 3. Flowers have two lemmas, two flower films, three stamens and one pistil, the flower formula is O (2) + 2T3P1. 4. Complex ear, panicle, cob, sultan. 5. Cereals. 6. Vaginal, narrow, long with parallel venation. 7. Most cereals have a straw stalk. 8. Cereals (wheat, rye, corn, rice and others) are the main food product containing protein.
Task 17. 12; *CH4L4T2+4P1. The fruits are pods or pods. 2.6; *Ch5L5T∞P1, *Ch5L5T∞P∞., or *Ch5+5L5T∞P∞. False fruits of the wild rose from a concave overgrown receptacle (tsinarodium) and inside the real fruits are nuts; false fruits from a convex overgrown receptacle (fraga, or strawberry) and real nuts (multi-nuts); drupe; combined drupe (multi-drupe); apple. 3.7; Ch(5)L1+2+(2)T(9)+1P1 or Ch(5)L1+2+(2)T(10)P1. The fruits are beans. 4.1; *Ch(5)L(5)T5P1. The fruits are berries or capsules. 5.4; Flowers are tubular, reed, pseudo-reed, funnel-shaped. Inflorescence - basket. The fruits are seeds. 6. 3 - lily; *O3+3T3+3P1. The fruits are berries or capsules. 5 - cereals; O(2)+2T3P1. The fruits are grains.
A flower is a conspicuous, often beautiful, important part of flowering plants. Flowers can be large and small, brightly colored and green, odorous and odorless, single or collected together from many small flowers into one common inflorescence.
A flower is a modified shortened shoot that serves for seed reproduction. The flower usually ends on the main or side shoot. Like any shoot, a flower develops from a bud.
flower structure
The flower is a reproductive organ angiosperms, consisting of a shortened stem (flower axis), on which the flower cover (perianth), stamens and pistils, consisting of one or more carpels, are located.
The axis of the flower is called receptacle. The receptacle, growing, takes a different shape - flat, concave, convex, hemispherical, cone-shaped, elongated, columnar. The receptacle at the bottom passes into the pedicel, connecting the flower with the stem or peduncle.
Flowers that do not have a pedicel are called sessile. On the pedicel of many plants there are two or one small leaves - bracts.
flower cover - perianth- can be divided into a cup and a whisk.
Cup forms the outer circle of the perianth, its leaves are usually relatively small in size, green in color. Distinguish between separate and joint-leaved calyx. Usually it performs the function of protecting the inner parts of the flower until the bud opens. In some cases, the calyx falls off when the flower blooms, most often it remains during flowering.
The parts of the flower located around the stamens and pistil are called the perianth.
The inner leaves are the petals that make up the corolla. The outer leaves - sepals - form a calyx. The perianth, consisting of a calyx and a corolla, is called double. Perianth, which is not subdivided into corolla and calyx, and all the leaves of the flower are more or less the same - simple.
Corolla- the inner part of the perianth, differs from the calyx in bright color and larger size. The color of the petals is due to the presence of chromoplasts. Distinguish separately - and joint-petal corollas. The first consists of individual petals. In interpetal corollas, a tube and a limb perpendicular to it are distinguished, having a certain number of teeth or vanes of the corolla.
Flowers are symmetrical and asymmetrical. There are flowers that do not have a perianth, they are called naked.
Symmetrical (actinomorphic)- if many axes of symmetry can be drawn through the whisk.
Asymmetrical (zygomorphic)- if only one axis of symmetry can be drawn.
Double flowers have an abnormally increased number of petals. In most cases, they result from the splitting of the petals.
Stamen- a part of a flower, which is a kind of specialized structure that forms microspores and pollen. It consists of a filament, through which it is attached to the receptacle, and an anther containing pollen. The number of stamens in a flower is a systematic feature. Stamens are distinguished by the method of attachment to the receptacle, by the shape, size, structure of the stamen filaments, connective and anther. The collection of stamens in a flower is called the androecium.
filament- the sterile part of the stamen, bearing an anther on its top. The filament can be straight, curved, twisted, winding, broken. In shape - hairy, cone-shaped, cylindrical, flattened, club-shaped. By the nature of the surface - naked, pubescent, hairy, with glands. In some plants, it is short or does not develop at all.
Anther located at the top of the staminate filament and attached to it by a ligament. It consists of two halves connected by a link. Each half of the anther has two cavities (pollen sacs, chambers, or nests) in which pollen develops.
As a rule, the anther is four-celled, but sometimes the partition between the nests in each half is destroyed, and the anther becomes two-celled. In some plants, the anther is even single-celled. It is very rare to see trinity. According to the type of attachment to the filament, the anthers are fixed, mobile and swinging.
Anthers contain pollen or pollen grains.
The structure of the pollen grain
The dust particles formed in the anthers of the stamens are small grains, they are called pollen grains. The largest ones reach 0.5 mm in diameter, but usually they are much smaller. Under a microscope, you can see that the dust particles of different plants are not at all the same. They differ in size and shape.
The surface of the dust grain is covered with various protrusions, tubercles. Getting on the stigma of the pistil, pollen grains are held with the help of outgrowths and a sticky liquid released on the stigma.
The nests of the young anther contain special diploid cells. As a result of meiotic division, four haploid spores are formed from each cell, which are called microspores for their very small size. Here, in the cavity of the pollen sac, microspores turn into pollen grains.
This happens as follows: the microspore nucleus is divided mitotically into two nuclei - vegetative and generative. Around the nuclei, areas of the cytoplasm are concentrated and two cells are formed - vegetative and generative. On the surface of the cytoplasmic membrane of the microspore, a very strong shell is formed from the contents of the pollen sac, insoluble in acids and alkalis. Thus, each pollen grain consists of vegetative and generative cells and is covered with two shells. Many pollen grains make up the pollen of a plant. Pollen matures in the anthers by the time the flower opens.
pollen germination
The beginning of pollen germination is associated with mitotic division, as a result of which a small reproductive cell is formed (sperms develop from it) and a large vegetative cell (pollen tube develops from it).
After the pollen in one way or another gets on the stigma, its germination begins. sticky and uneven surface The stigma helps hold pollen. In addition, the stigma releases a special substance (enzyme) that acts on the pollen, stimulating its germination.
The pollen swells, and the restraining influence of the exine (the outer layer of the pollen grain coat) causes the contents of the pollen cell to rupture one of the pores, through which the intina (the inner, poreless shell of the pollen grain) bulges outward as a narrow pollen tube. The contents of the pollen cell pass into the pollen tube.
Under the epidermis of the stigma is loose tissue into which the pollen tube penetrates. It continues to grow, passing either through a special conductive channel between the mucilaginous cells, or tortuously along the intercellular spaces of the conductive tissue of the column. At the same time, usually in the column simultaneously advances significant number pollen tubes, and the "success" of one or another tube depends on the individual growth rate.
Two sperm and one vegetative nucleus pass into the pollen tube. If the formation of spermatozoa in the pollen has not yet occurred, then the generative cell passes into the pollen tube, and here, by its division, sperm cells are formed. The vegetative nucleus is often located in front, at the growing end of the tube, and sperm cells are successively located behind it. In the pollen tube, the cytoplasm is in constant motion.
Pollen is rich in nutrients. These substances, especially carbohydrates (sugar, starch, pentosans) are intensively consumed during pollen germination. In addition to carbohydrates chemical composition pollen includes proteins, fats, ash and an extensive group of enzymes. Pollen contains a high content of phosphorus. Substances are in the pollen in a mobile state. Pollen easily transfers low temperatures up to - 20Сº and even lower, for a long time. High temperatures quickly reduce germination.
Pestle
The pistil is the part of the flower that forms the fruit. It arises from the carpel (a leaf-like structure that carries the ovules) after the fusion of the edges of the latter. It can be simple if it is composed of one carpel, and complex if it is composed of several simple pistils fused together by the side walls. In some plants, the pistils are underdeveloped and are represented only by rudiments. The pistil is divided into ovary, style and stigma.
Ovary- the lower part of the pistil, in which the seed germs are located.
Having entered the ovary, the pollen tube grows further and enters the ovule in most cases through the pollen inlet (micropyle). Penetrating into the embryo sac, the end of the pollen tube bursts, and the contents pour out onto one of the synergids, which darkens and quickly collapses. The vegetative nucleus is usually destroyed before the pollen tube penetrates the embryo sac.
Flowers right and wrong
The tepals (simple and double) can be arranged so that several planes of symmetry can be drawn through it. Such flowers are called correct. Flowers through which one plane of symmetry can be drawn are called irregular.
Flowers bisexual and dioecious
Most plants have flowers that have both stamens and pistils. These are bisexual flowers. But in some plants, some flowers have only pistils - pistillate flowers, while others have only stamens - staminate flowers. Such flowers are called dioecious.
Plants monoecious and dioecious
Plants that develop both pistillate and staminate flowers are called monoecious. Dioecious plants - staminate flowers on one plant, and pistillate - on another.
There are species in which bisexual and unisexual flowers can be found on the same plant. These are the so-called polygamous (polygamous) plants.
inflorescences
Flowers are formed on shoots. Very rarely they are located alone. More often, flowers are collected in conspicuous groups called inflorescences. The beginning of the study of inflorescences was laid by Linnaeus. But for him, the inflorescence was not a type of branching, but a way of flowering.
In inflorescences, the main and lateral axes are distinguished (sessile or on pedicels), then such inflorescences are called simple. If the flowers are on the lateral axes, then these are complex inflorescences.
| Inflorescence type | Inflorescence scheme | Peculiarities | Example |
| Simple inflorescences | |||
| Brush | Separate lateral flowers sit on an elongated main axis and at the same time have their own pedicels, approximately equal in length | Bird cherry, lily of the valley, cabbage | |
| Ear | The main axis is more or less elongated, but the flowers are without stalks, i.e. sedentary. | Plantain, orchid | |
| cob | It differs from the ear in a fleshy thickened axis. | Corn, calla | |
| Basket | The flowers are always sessile and sit on a strongly thickened and widened end of a shortened axis, which has a concave, flat or convex appearance. In this case, the inflorescence outside has a so-called wrapper, consisting of one or many consecutive rows of bracts, free or fused. | Chamomile, dandelion, aster, sunflower, cornflower | |
| Head | The main axis is greatly shortened, the lateral flowers are sessile or almost sessile, closely spaced to each other. | Clover, scabiosa | |
| Umbrella | The main axle is shortened; lateral flowers come out, as it were, from one place, sit on legs of different lengths, located in the same plane or dome-shaped. | Primula, onion, cherry | |
| Shield | It differs from the brush in that the lower flowers have long stalks, so that as a result the flowers are located almost in the same plane. | Pear, spirea | |
| Complex inflorescences | |||
| Complex brush or panicle |  | Lateral branching axes depart from the main axis, on which flowers or simple inflorescences are located. | Lilac, oats |
| complex umbrella | Simple inflorescences depart from the shortened main axis. | Carrot, parsley | |
| Complex spike | Individual spikelets are located on the main axis. | Rye, wheat, barley, wheatgrass | |
The biological significance of inflorescences
The biological significance of inflorescences is that the small, often inconspicuous flowers, clustered together, become conspicuous, produce the most pollen, and better attract insects that carry pollen from flower to flower.
Pollination
In order for fertilization to occur, the pollen needs to land on the stigma of the pistil.
The process of transferring pollen from the stamens to the stigma is called pollination. There are two main types of pollination: self-pollination and cross pollination.
self pollination
During self-pollination, pollen from a stamen falls on the stigma of the pistil of the same flower. This is how wheat, rice, oats, barley, peas, beans, and cotton are pollinated. Self-pollination in plants most often occurs in a flower that has not yet opened, that is, in a bud, when the flower opens, it is already completed.
During self-pollination, germ cells formed on the same plant merge and, therefore, have the same hereditary characteristics. This is why the offspring resulting from the process of self-pollination are very similar to the parent plant.
cross pollination
With cross-pollination, the recombination of hereditary traits of the paternal and maternal organisms occurs, and the resulting offspring can acquire new properties that the parents did not have. Such offspring are more viable. In nature, cross-pollination is much more common than self-pollination.
Cross-pollination is carried out with the help of various external factors.
Anemophilia(wind pollination). In anemophilous plants, the flowers are small, often collected in inflorescences, a lot of pollen is formed, it is dry, small, and when the anther opens, it is thrown out with force. The light pollen of these plants can be carried by the wind over distances of up to several hundred kilometers.
The anthers are located on long thin filaments. The stigmas of the pistil are wide or long, pinnate and protrude from the flowers. Anemophilia is characteristic of almost all grasses, sedges.
Entomophily(carrying pollen by insects). The adaptation of plants to entomophily is the smell, color and size of flowers, sticky pollen with outgrowths. Most flowers are bisexual, but maturation of pollen and pistils does not occur simultaneously, or the height of the stigmas is greater or less height anthers, which serves as protection against self-pollination.
In the flowers of insect pollinated plants there are areas that secrete a sweet fragrant solution. These areas are called nectaries. Nectaries may be in different places flower and have different forms. Insects, having flown up to the flower, are drawn to nectaries and anthers, and during the meal they get dirty with pollen. When an insect moves to another flower, the pollen grains carried by it stick to the stigmas.
When pollinated by insects, less pollen is wasted, and therefore the plant saves substances by producing less pollen. Pollen grains do not need to stay in the air for long and can therefore be heavy.
Insects can pollinate sparsely located flowers and flowers in calm places - in the forest thicket or thick grass.
Typically, each plant species is pollinated by several species of insects, and each pollinating insect species serves several plant species. But there are some types of plants whose flowers are pollinated by insects of only one species. In such cases, the mutual correspondence between the modes of life and the structure of flowers and insects is so complete that it seems miraculous.
Ornithophilia(pollination by birds). It is typical for some tropical plants with brightly colored flowers, abundant secretions of nectar, and a strong elastic structure.
hydrophilia(pollination with water). Observed in aquatic plants. The pollen and stigma of these plants most often have a filamentous shape.
bestiality(pollination by animals). These plants are characterized by large flower sizes, abundant secretion of nectar containing mucus, mass production of pollen, and flowering at night when pollinated by bats.
Fertilization
The pollen grain falls on the stigma of the pistil and is attached to it due to the structural features of the shell, as well as the sticky sugary secretions of the stigma, to which the pollen adheres. The pollen grain swells and germinates into a long, very thin pollen tube. The pollen tube is formed as a result of division of a vegetative cell. First, this tube grows between the cells of the stigma, then the style, and finally grows into the cavity of the ovary.
The generative cell of the pollen grain moves into the pollen tube, divides and forms two male gametes (sperms). When the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the pollen passage, one of the sperm fuses with the egg. Fertilization occurs and a zygote is formed.
The second sperm fuses with the nucleus of the large central cell of the embryo sac. Thus, in flowering plants, two fusions occur during fertilization: the first sperm fuses with the egg, the second with the large central cell. This process was discovered in 1898 by the Russian botanist, academician S.G. Navashin and called it double fertilization. Double fertilization is typical only for flowering plants.
The zygote formed by the fusion of gametes divides into two cells. Each of the resulting cells divides again, and so on. As a result of multiple cell divisions, a multicellular embryo of a new plant develops.
The central cell also divides, forming endosperm cells, in which nutrient reserves accumulate. They are necessary for the nutrition and development of the embryo. The seed coat develops from the integument of the ovule. After fertilization, a seed develops from the ovule, consisting of a peel, an embryo, and a supply of nutrients.
After fertilization, nutrients flow to the ovary, and it gradually turns into a ripe fruit. The pericarp, which protects the seeds from adverse effects, develops from the walls of the ovary. In some plants, other parts of the flower also take part in the formation of the fruit.
Spore formation
Simultaneously with the formation of pollen in the stamens, the formation of a large diploid cell occurs in the ovule. This cell divides meiotically and gives rise to four haploid spores, which are called macrospores because they are larger in size than microspores.
Of the four formed macrospores, three die off, and the fourth begins to grow and gradually turns into an embryo sac.
Embryo sac formation
As a result of threefold mitotic division of the nucleus in the cavity of the embryo sac, eight nuclei are formed, which are clothed with cytoplasm. Cells without membranes are formed, which are arranged in a certain order. At one pole of the embryo sac, an egg apparatus is formed, consisting of an egg and two auxiliary cells. At the opposite pole there are three cells (antipodes). One nucleus migrates from each pole to the center of the embryo sac (polar nuclei). Sometimes the polar nuclei fuse and form the diploid central nucleus of the embryo sac. The embryo sac in which nuclear differentiation has occurred is considered mature and can accept sperm.
By the time the pollen and the embryo sac have matured, the flower opens.
The structure of the ovule
The ovules develop on inner sides walls of the ovary and, like all parts of the plant, are made up of cells. The number of ovules in the ovaries of different plants is different. In wheat, barley, rye, cherries, the ovary contains only one ovule, in cotton - several dozen, and in poppy their number reaches several thousand.
Each ovule is covered with a covering. At the top of the ovule there is a narrow channel - the pollen entrance. It leads to the tissue that occupies the central part of the ovule. In this tissue, as a result of cell division, an embryo sac is formed. Opposite the pollen entrance, there is an egg in it, and the central part is occupied by a large central cell.
Development of angiosperms (flowering) plants
Formation of seed and fruit
During the formation of a seed and a fetus, one of the sperm fuses with the egg, forming a diploid zygote. Subsequently, the zygote divides many times, and as a result, a multicellular embryo of the plant develops. The central cell, which has merged with the second sperm, also divides many times, but the second embryo does not appear. A special tissue is formed - the endosperm. The endosperm cells accumulate reserves of nutrients necessary for the development of the embryo. The integuments of the ovule grow and turn into a seed coat.
Thus, as a result of double fertilization, a seed is formed, which consists of an embryo, a storage tissue (endosperm) and a seed coat. From the wall of the ovary, the wall of the fruit, called the pericarp, is formed.
sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction of angiosperms is associated with a flower. Its most important parts are stamens and pistils. They undergo complex processes associated with sexual reproduction.
In flowering plants, the male gametes (sperm) are very small, while the female gametes (ovules) are much larger.
In the anthers of the stamen, cell division occurs, resulting in the formation of pollen grains. Each pollen grain of angiosperms consists of vegetative and generative cells. The pollen grain is covered with two shells. The outer shell, as a rule, is uneven, with spines, warts, outgrowths in the form of a mesh. This helps the pollen grains to stick to the stigma of the pistil. The pollen of the plant, ripening in the anthers, by the time the flower opens, consists of many pollen grains.
flower formula
Formulas are used to conditionally express the structure of flowers. To draw up a flower formula, the following notation is used:
A simple perianth, consisting of sepals or petals alone, its parts are called tepals. |
|
| H | Calyx composed of sepals |
| L | Corolla, composed of petals |
| T | Stamen |
| P | Pestle |
| 1,2,3... | The number of flower elements is indicated by numbers |
| , | The same parts of a flower, differing in shape |
| () | fused parts of a flower |
| + | Arrangement of elements in two circles |
| _ | Upper or lower ovary - a dash above or below the number that shows the number of pistils |
| wrong flower | |
| * | right flower |
| ♂ | Unisexual staminate flower |
| ♀ | unisexual pistillate flower |
| Bisexual | |
| ∞ | Number of flower parts greater than 12 |
Cherry blossom formula example:
*H 5 L 5 T ∞ P 1
flower diagram
The structure of a flower can be expressed not only by a formula, but also by a diagram - schematic image flower on a plane perpendicular to the axis of the flower.
Make a diagram of cross sections of unopened flower buds. The diagram gives a more complete idea of the structure of the flower than the formula, since it also shows the relative position of its parts, which cannot be shown in the formula.
Municipalstage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in biology
Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug - Yugra
2015-2016 academic year
Grade 9
Dear Guys!
Congratulations on your participation in the municipal stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in biology! When answering questions and completing tasks, do not rush, as the answers are not always obvious and require the use of not only biological knowledge, but also general erudition, logic and creativity.Time to complete tasks 180 minutes (3 hours). The maximum score is 68. Good luck in your work!
Part I
You are offered test tasks that require the choice of only one answer out of four possible. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 30 (1 point for each test item). The index of the answer that you consider the most complete and correct, indicate in the answer matrix.
1. Mycobacteria are pathogens:
a) syphilis;
b) jaundice;
c) tuberculosis;
d) mycoses.
2. Kukushkin flax breeds:
a) zoospores;
b) seeds under adverse conditions;
c) disputes;
d) aplanospores.
3. Red algae differ from green and brown algae in that:
a) red algae do not form chlorophyll a;
b) red algae do not have a sexual process;
c) unicellular red algae were not found;
d) in the life cycle of red algae there are no cells with flagella.
4. Of the listed algae, they are able to absorb organic substances from the environment:
a) spirogyra and fucus;
b) spirogyra and ulotrix;
c) chlamydomonas and chlorella;
d) kelp and fucus.
5. In the basket of the plant shown
in the picture, flowers:
a) reed;
b) false-lingual;
c) tubular and false-lingual;
d) reed and tubular
6. Strawberry Leaves:
a) unpaired pinnate;
b) ternary;
c) palmately complex;
d) complex single leaf.
7. On a cross section of a 3-year-old linden stem, you can see:
a) cambium, inside from it is the core, and outside - the bark;
b) cambium, wood inside from it, and bark outside;
c) procambium, outside of it is bark, and inside - wood;
d) procambium, the central cylinder is outside of it, and wood is inside.
8. In one cell of the pulp of a mature rowan fruit under a microscope, plastids can be seen:
a) leukoplasts, chloroplasts and chromoplasts;
b) leukoplasts and chloroplasts;
c) leukoplasts and chromoplasts;
d) chromoplasts.
9. Underground seed germination is typical for:
a) castor beans;
c) pumpkins;
d) English oak.
10. Resin passages are typical for:
a) conifers;
b) Compositae;
c) umbrella;
d) all of the listed plants.
11. What kind of blood is in the heart of the toothless: venous (with a low oxygen content) or arterial (oxygenated)?
a) venous;
b) arterial;
c) in the atria it is venous, and in the ventricle it is arterial;
d) arterial in the left atrium, venous in the right atrium, mixed in the ventricle.
12. What is the pericardial sinus filled with in crayfish?
a) water;
b) coelomic fluid;
c) arterial blood;
d) venous blood.
13. Why are representatives of this species of animals (see figure) dangerous to humans?
a) carriers of protozoa - pathogens of a dangerous disease;
b) carriers of bacteria - pathogens of a dangerous disease;
c) have poisonous glands, the bite is dangerous for people with diseases of the cardiovascular system;
d) are not dangerous.
14. The figure shows the organ of movement, characteristic of:
a) jellyfish; 
b) crustaceans;
c) echinoderms;
d) annelids.
15. How does crayfish breathe?
a) atmospheric oxygen;
b) oxygen dissolved in water;
c) in different ways, depending on the degree of pollution of the reservoir;
d) in different ways, depending on the time of year.
16. Which group of insects are termites closest to?
a) bees
b) ants;
c) cockroaches;
d) orthoptera.
17. Which of these groups of animals has a class rank in the classification?
a) bats;
b) brachiopods;
c) gastropods;
d) winged.
18. The mask is part of the oral apparatus:
a) termite soldiers;
b) gravedigger beetles;
c) spider-cross;
d) dragonfly larvae.
a) echinococcus;
b) roundworm;
c) cat fluke;
d) bull tapeworm.
a) echinococcus;
b) malarial plasmodium;
c) dysenteric amoeba;
d) whiplash.
21. Which bird specializes in foraging in flight?
a) blackbird
b) robin;
c) finch;
d) black swift.
22. Which of the mammals is characterized by the absence of fangs in the dental system?
a) manul;
b) shrew;
c) zebra;
d) gopher.
23. Which of the birds builds nests in hollows?
a) blackbird;
b) common nuthatch;
c) black-headed warbler;
d) green foam.
24. Representatives of what class are worms?
a) round-mouthed;
b) mammals;
c) reptiles;
d) amphibians.
25. How polar bear hunt penguins in nature?
a) knocks down with a paw in the air;
b) waits in ambush;
c) catches up by swimming;
d) no way.
26. In passerine birds, a short powerful beak is associated with nutrition:
a) seeds
b) fruits;
c) large animal food;
d) insects.
27. When a dog marks someone else's urinary tag, this is an example:
a) motivation;
b) alarms;
c) orientation;
d) communications.
28. In birds, the leading sense organ is:
a) vision;
b) sense of smell;
d) touch.
29. Which of the following types better satisfies the concept
"r-strategist"?
A) grass frog;
b) African elephant;
c) bank vole;
d) viviparous lizard.
30. Which of the mammals is characterized by the absence of fangs in the dental system?
a) red evening party;
b) white hare;
31. Bones of the roof of the skull belong to the bones:
a) airy;
b) spongy;
c) flat;
d) tubular.
32. Unlike an adult, a child under 6–7 years old does not have:
a) incisors;
b) fangs;
c) small molars;
d) large molars.
33. Membrane resting potential with increasing concentration of extracellular potassium:
a) is increasing
b) does not change;
c) decreases;
d) changes sign.
34. In skeletal muscles, the appearance of calcium in the cytoplasm is due to:
a) activation of calcium pumps;
b) activation of the sodium-calcium exchanger;
c) closing of voltage-sensitive channels in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum;
d) opening of calcium-dependent calcium channels in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.
35. Cross-striped fibers are characteristic of muscle tissues, which provide:
a) rotation of the eyeball;
b) compression of the walls of the lymphatic vessels;
c) constriction of the pupil;
d) pupil dilation.
36. Salivation centers are located in:
a) midbrain
b) cerebellum;
c) diencephalon;
d) medulla oblongata.
37. Parietal cells of the gastric mucosa secrete:
a) pepsinogen;
b) trypsinogen;
c) hydrochloric acid;
d) alpha-amylase.
38. Erythrocytes placed in hypertonic solution:
a) burst, releasing the contents in environment;
b) decrease in volume and wrinkle;
c) retain their disc shape due to the activation of electrolyte transfer systems;
d) stick together (agglutinate) with the formation of a precipitate.
39. Organelles present in cells of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes:
a) endoplasmic reticulum;
b) mitochondria;
c) lysosomes;
d) ribosomes.
40. Animals that live in soil and caves have some common features. Find one wrong one among them.
a) reduction of pigmentation;
b) reduction of visual perception;
c) reduction of all sense organs;
d) adaptation to constant abiotic conditions.
Part II.
You are offered test tasks with one answer option out of four possible, but requiring a preliminary multiple choice. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 20 (2 points for each test task). The index of the answer that you consider the most complete and correct, indicate in the answer matrix. 
Infusoria balantidia - 1) lives in fresh water, 2) moves with the help of flagella, 3) does not have a contractile vacuole, 4) carries out the sexual process - conjugation, 5) has one nucleus.
| a) 3, 4 |
| b) 1, 2 |
| c) 1, 2, 5 |
| d) 2, 4 |
| e) 3, 4, 5 |
The animal shown in the figure is 1) covered with horny scales, 2) reproduces at the larval stage (neotenic), 3) has one lumbar vertebra, 4) performs double breathing, 5) does not have a hard palate.
The optical system of the eye includes - 1) pupil, 2) cornea, 3) sclera, 4) lens, 5) retina.
Of these substances, soluble in water are 1) beta-carotene, 2) erythrose, 3) ATPase, 4) maltose, 5) inulin.
Part III.
You are offered test tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which you must either agree or reject. In the response matrix, indicate the answer option “yes” or “no” by putting an X in the appropriate box. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 10 (1 point for each task).
1. All autotrophic organisms are also phototrophic.
2. From the total light energy reaching photosynthetic organisms, about 1% visible light used by them.
3. Light intensity and quality vary vertically in the forest canopy.
4. The body of lower plants is always represented by a thallus with large leaves.
5. Hawthorn spines are modified shoots.
6. The seed embryo at the earliest stages of germination is heterotrophic.
7. Lungfish - an extinct group of fish from which the first amphibians originated.
8. Myxins do not have a larval stage in the development cycle.
9. All representatives of the phylum Chordates are dioecious animals. 10. Regeneration in polyps occurs due to the division of skin-muscle cells.
11. All invertebrates use external fertilization.
12. The bulk of the muscles in birds is located on the ventral side.
13. The group of mammalian skin glands includes sweat, sebaceous and milk glands.
14. The main organ that, under the influence of the hormone insulin, provides a decrease in blood glucose levels is the liver.
15. Strict bed rest for a month does not affect the water and electrolyte balance of the blood.
Part IV.
You are offered test tasks that require compliance. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 8. Fill in the answer matrices in accordance with the requirements of the tasks.
1. Compare the named biochemical processes and organelles in which these processes take place.
2. In mammals, hormones are involved in the regulation of numerous processes. Correlate, using letter designations, the names of these hormones, indicated by numbers, with their functions, indicated by letters.
| Hormones | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Functions: |
3. Establish a correspondence between the cell forms of causative agents of bacterial infections (1 - 4) and the diseases they cause (A - Z).
INFLORESCENCE
The meaning of inflorescences. An inflorescence is a shoot or system of shoots bearing flowers. The biological meaning of the appearance of inflorescences is obvious, since the probability of pollination of flowers increases in both anemogamous and entomogamous plants. It is clear that an insect per unit of time will visit much more flowers collected in an inflorescence than single ones. Consistent blooming of flowers in the inflorescence also represents a significant biological advantage. Some scientists note that damage to a single flower leads to sterility of the entire shoot. It is very important that one or another type of inflorescence is associated with a certain type of seed and with adaptations for the distribution of fruits and seeds. Considering all that has been said, it is not surprising that inflorescences are characteristic of the vast majority of flowering plants.
Classification of inflorescences. Inflorescences are divided into simple and complex. Among simple inflorescences two groups are distinguished: 1) racemose (bothric), or monopodial, and 2) cymose, or sympodial. Racemous inflorescences are characterized by blooming of the uppermost flower last. Flowers bloom acropetally (from bottom to top), centripetally (from the periphery to the center of the inflorescence). There are three main variants of racemose inflorescences: 1) raceme and related eikolos, head and cob, 2) umbellate inflorescences, 3) baskets.
Figure - Schemes of simple racemose inflorescences with terminal flowers: 1 - brush, 2 - ear, 3 - cob, 4 - umbrella, 5 - head, 6 - basket, 7 - shield
Cymose inflorescences are characterized by the blooming of the upper flower on the main axis in the first place. Flowers bloom basipetally (from the top to the base), centrifugally (from the center to the periphery). Cymose inflorescences are divided into: 1) monochasia, 2) dichasia and 3) pleiochasia.
Figure - Schemes of some cymose inflorescences: 1, 2 - monochasium, 3 - dichasium, 4 - pleiochasium
IN simple forms cymose and racemous inflorescences are easily distinguishable, but in specialized forms it is often very difficult to establish the type of inflorescence.
All mentioned inflorescences are simple inflorescences. Compound inflorescences are formed from several or many simple inflorescences, both racemose and cymose.
The number of flowers in inflorescences is very different, sometimes reaching tens of thousands. The largest inflorescences, apparently, are those of the Corypha palm, up to 12 m in diameter.
Racemose inflorescences. The brush is characterized by the arrangement of flowers on an elongated axis, on pedicels. A similar type, but with sessile flowers, is called an ear. An ear with a thick fleshy axis is called an ear. Finally, if the main axis is shortened, the inflorescence is called a head. The inflorescences of the first two variants are especially common.
Spike, very close to the brush. The only difference is that the pedicels do not develop on the ear. In this regard, there is also the absence of bracts. Often the shape of the inflorescence also serves as a systematic feature.
An ear is an ear with a thick fleshy axis of the inflorescence. Ears are extremely characteristic of species of the tropical aroid family, in which the bright color of the ear often contrasts with the no less bright color of the subfloral leaf. All this attracts small pollinating insects. Very few aroids are found in the temperate zone of Eurasia. The most famous calla with a whitish subflower leaf, which is not uncommon in our overgrown reservoirs, is best known.
Umbrella inflorescences are quite widely distributed in nature. A typical umbrella can be seen on the example of a common celandine in our garbage places. Umbrellas end up with both the main and side shoots. The latter bear fewer flowers. The main umbrella usually consists of 7-9 flowers and corresponds to the scheme. It has already been mentioned that the umbrella can be taken out of the brush, in which the growth of the axis is completely inhibited and, accordingly, the covering leaves and pedicels are crowded into rosettes. Inflorescences of the apple tree, which are formed on shortened shoots and are typical umbrellas, for the most part of 6 flowers. Bows, some primroses, breakworts and other plants also have typical umbrellas.
The shield occupies, to a certain extent, an intermediate position between the brush and the umbrella. It is found, for example, in the garden pear, which is closely related to the apple tree, and, like the umbrella of the apple tree, it has, in addition to the lateral apical flower.
Typical baskets are characteristic of the huge, largest among the angiosperms, the Asteraceae family. Schematically, the baskets are shown in , however, the covering leaves are very small in many species, and sometimes absent altogether.
In the baskets, the flowers fit tightly to each other and are located on a platform or conical surface corresponding to the extended axis of the inflorescences. Along the edge of the basket there is a wrapper consisting of leaflets, specialized to varying degrees. It should be emphasized that the involucre is formed by sterile upper leaves. Biologically, but not morphologically (analogy, but not homology!) the basket corresponds to the flower, and the external similarity is often aggravated by the differentiation of flowers. The extended saucer-shaped or conical axis of the inflorescence is sometimes called the common receptacle or simply the receptacle.
Like the brush, in the basket, in essence, the acropetal order of blooming flowers. The last to bloom are the central, upper flowers.
Since the wrapper is the most characteristic feature of the basket, it should be touched on purpose. Biologically, it corresponds to the calyx (again, an analogy, but not homology!) and, in fact, has a similar origin to the calyx.
In some Compositae, the leaflets of the wrapper are brightly colored and play the role of petals. This is very pronounced in the so-called immortals (Xeranthemum, Helichrysum, etc.). The number of leaflets of the wrapper is especially large in the garden immortelle Helichrysumbracteatum, originally from South Africa.
Complex inflorescences are quite widespread in nature, especially complex, or double, brushes and complex, or double, umbrellas.
Double brushes include inflorescences of many speedwells, a number of moths and other plants. Consider a double brush on the example of a clover inflorescence (Trifolium campestre). It is formed in the latter by several capitate racemes emerging from the axils of the covering leaves. The internodes are very elongated, and the brushes are far apart from each other. Along with brushes, which are this case are private inflorescences, adnexal buds also appear in the axils of the covering leaves of clover. At a certain distance from the top, not brushes appear from the axils of the leaves of the main axis, but leafy shoots, that is, axes of the second order, repeating the branching of the main axis. They are called enrichment shoots, and the section of the main axis on which they arise is the enrichment zone. The so-called main internode (between the top shoot enrichment and the lowest private inflorescence) separates the inflorescence from the vegetative zone with the enrichment zone.
Complex, or double, umbrellas are characteristic of the vast majority of representatives of the large umbrella family. A double umbrella can be imagined if one imagines that in a simple umbrella each flower is replaced by an umbrella. As a rule, complex umbrellas are open. Therefore, private inflorescences-umbrellas arise as axillary formations. Usually umbrellas sit on legs, and the length of the latter in many umbrellas (carrots) decreases in the direction from the outer umbrellas to the inner ones.
Figure - Scheme of a complex umbrella
The so-called complex ears, characteristic of some cereals, represent very peculiar inflorescences, largely due to the fact that their leaf organs are very specialized and turned into scales. Cereal inflorescences are always complex, consisting of individual spikelet inflorescences; in a complex ear, spikelets seem to replace the flowers of simple ears. Spikelets are located on the axis of the inflorescence in two rows or spirally. Covering leaves of spikelets are absent, which often happens in inflorescences of other types. Each spike contains one or more (rarely more than 10) flowers. The latter, in addition to stamens and pistil, also have tiny lodicule films. . The flower is enclosed between two scales. The blooming of the flower is facilitated by the lodiculae. The flowers are located in the spikelet mostly in two rows. In addition to the organs mentioned, the spikelet usually has lower and upper glumes at the base. .
Figure - Inflorescence of wheat: 1 - flower after removal of scales, 2 - diagram of the structure of the spikelet; NKCh - lower glume, VKCh - upper glume, NTsvCh - lower lemma, VTsvCh - upper lemma
In most cereals, spikelets sit on legs, and the axis of the inflorescence branches, resulting in paniculate inflorescences (oats, bluegrass, bonfire, etc.).
The panicle differs from the double brush in the multi-axis branching system. Of course, third-order axes are usually present only in the lower and middle parts of the panicle, and in the upper part often only the main axis with lateral and (often) terminal flowers remains. The panicle is found in lilac, elderberry, viburnum, grapes, meadowsweet, hydrangea and other plants .
Figure - Diagram of a panicle with opposite leaf arrangement
Cymose inflorescences. Simple cymose inflorescences are divided into mono-, di- and pleiochasial, which are adjoined by some more less common types.
Dichasium is obviously the simplest variant of cymose inflorescences. The blooming of the inflorescence begins with the apical flower, called the flower of the first order; both lateral flowers are flowers of the second order. From the axils of the latter, flowers of the third order arise, etc. , and the axis of the inflorescence becomes a sympodium.
Dichasial inflorescences are especially characteristic of plants with opposite leaf arrangement, for example, representatives of the clove family. Inflorescences of species of asterisks, yaskolok (Cerastium) correspond to the above parsed scheme. You should pay attention to the movements produced by the pedicels. During flowering, they are directed upwards, when flowering, they sharply bend down and straighten again by the time of fruiting. Sometimes the “correctness” of dichasia is violated due to the fact that one of the branches develops stronger than the other (wood louse - Stellaria media). Like many other characters, the number of orders of flowers in a dichasia depends on the environmental conditions.
Thus, under extreme conditions of existence, many species of saplings and tars (Silene) form single flowers corresponding to the flowers of the first order of dichasial inflorescences. There are cases among the same cloves when one of the two branches of each pair is regularly suppressed. The inflorescence that arises then, as in some tares (Sileneanglica, S. pendula), outwardly is extremely similar to a brush (Fig. 358), i.e. the axis of the inflorescence is tortuous. It already represents the transition to monochasial inflorescences.
Typical monochasia are characterized by the development, as a rule, of only one bract (preleaf), especially in flowers of the third and higher orders.
Monochasia inflorescences are divided into two groups: convolutions and whorls. A convolution occurs when the successive axes of monochasia relative to the covering leaf of the apical flower go either to the left or to the right , in the case of a curl, the axes in relation to the covering leaf are directed in one direction, due to which the still unblown part of the inflorescence is twisted as if in a spiral.
Monochasia are very common in the borage family, and since the axis of the inflorescence at the stage of fruit formation is completely straight, they often resemble brushes or ears in appearance.
Figure - diagrams of cymose inflorescences: 1 - dichasium, 2 - gyrus, 3 - curl, 4 - double curl
Complex cymose inflorescences, composed of monochasia and dichasia, are called tyrzoidal inflorescences.
Thyrzoidal inflorescences include, in particular, catkins of alder, birch and other so-called catkin-flowered plants. The inflorescences here are often dioecious, characterized by the development of covering leaves and bracts. In alder, for example, the axis of the male catkin bears covering leaves, from the axils of which flowers of the first order arise; the latter have bracts that serve as covering leaves for flowers of the second order; in the latter, however, only one bract is developed. Thus, the inflorescence consists of three-flowered dichasia. Sometimes (as in hazel) the picture is very confused due to the fusion of leaf and axial organs.
Figure - Scheme of a part of an alder inflorescence
Pleiochasium is characterized by the fact that from each axis bearing the apical flower, more than two branches emerge, outgrowing the main axis and having the same type of branching.
Delimitation of the inflorescence from the vegetative part and its origin.
A sign of an inflorescence is by no means always a specialization of leaves. It should be borne in mind that the inflorescence is delimited from below by the so-called main internode, often exceeding in length those following it. This internode is preceded by a leaf (or a pair of leaves), in the axil of which an enrichment shoot may appear, repeating the main shoot. Thus, differentiation into inflorescence and "foundation" (vegetative zone) with enrichment shoots takes place.
Scheme of Veronica inflorescence. OM - main internode
Some scientists believe that the phylogenetically initial arrangement of flowers is their single arrangement on the tops of shoots, which can be seen in magnolia, some peonies and other plants. The axillary arrangement of single flowers appears to be secondary. Other scientists believe that the very first angiosperms possessed inflorescences, possibly cymose.
