Which planets in the solar system have atmospheric pressure? Atmosphere of planets in the solar system
All the planets of the terrestrial group - Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars have a common structure - the lithosphere, which, as it were, corresponds to the solid aggregate state of matter. Three planets: Venus, Earth and Mars have an atmosphere, and the hydrosphere has been established so far only on our planet. On fig. 5 shows the structure of the planets of the terrestrial group and the Moon, and in table. 2 - characteristic of the atmosphere of the terrestrial planets.[ ...]
In the lower part of the planet's atmosphere, stratification is close to adiabatic (see ), when cy = 1.3 and /1 = 44 (carbon dioxide), we find that in the lower part of the planet's atmosphere r « 1500 km, which is about four times less than the radius of the planet.[ ...]
The low density of the giant planets (for Saturn it is less than the density of water) is explained by the fact that they mainly consist of gaseous and liquid substances, mainly hydrogen and helium. In this they are similar to the Sun and many other stars, hydrogen and helium in the mass of which are approximately 98%. The atmosphere of the giant planets contains various hydrogen compounds, such as methane and ammonia.[ ...]
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The general increase in the concentration of CO2 in the planet's atmosphere is often considered as a source of danger to the climate. The absorption of heat rays by carbon dioxide can interfere with their reflection from the Earth's surface and lead to an overall increase in temperature. However, there are no data on this subject; sometimes it is indicated that such an effect can be compensated by a decrease in the heat radiated by the sun due to an increase in the content of dust and aerosols in the air.[ ...]
Rockets that carry instruments beyond the planet's atmosphere and its magnetosphere also make it possible to overcome the main weakness of terrestrial astronomy - the impossibility of observing the spectrum region from the Earth electromagnetic waves shorter than 300 nm, which are completely absorbed in the thickness of the air shell. Before our eyes, new areas of ancient science are being born - X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, observations are being made in the entire spectrum of radiation sent by the Universe. Among these new directions, closely related to environmental issues, includes the following.[ ...]
The total amount of carbon dioxide in the planet's atmosphere is at least 2.3-1012 tons, while its content in the World Ocean is estimated at 1.3-10 tons. In the lithosphere, 2-1017 tons of carbon dioxide is in a bound state. A significant amount of carbon dioxide is also contained in the living matter of the biosphere (about 1.5-1012 tons, i.e. almost as much as in the entire atmosphere).[ ...]
But even planetary astronomy clearly reveals that the atmospheres of the planets cannot be explained (as is now clear for earth's atmosphere) on the basis of their chemical composition as derivatives of universal gravitation and solar radiation, two factors that astronomers have so far only taken into account. From latest reports English and American astronomers Ressel, Wildt, Sp. Jones, Jeans and others, this clearly follows.[ ...]
We must not forget that the biogenic origin of our Earth's atmosphere is an empirical generalization, i.e., a logical conclusion from the exact data of scientific observation, and the chemical analysis of the troposphere and stratosphere sharply contradicts the logical conclusion that follows from the astronomical theory of the origin of planetary atmospheres when applied to the Earth. . If this theory were correct, then the amount of oxygen should decrease with height relative to nitrogen, while at high altitudes (up to 40 km), where this should have a sharp effect, such a decrease in oxygen relative to nitrogen is not observed. The ratio of O2 to N2 remains unchanged, both in the high layers of the troposphere and in the lower layers of the stratosphere.[ ...]
If the exact chemical composition atmosphere of Venus, comparing the found value of n with the adiabatic index - cp / su for a mixture of gases that make up the atmosphere of the planet, one could judge the nature of the stratification of the atmosphere. When p[ ...]
Suspended solid particles, according to First (1973), enter the atmosphere of the planet as a result of natural processes (up to 2200-10 a t/year of particles smaller than 20 microns) and human activity (up to 415-106 t/year). At the same time, it should be noted that the entry of particles into the air as a result of human activity is confined mainly to the places of its settlement and especially large and big cities. Solid suspensions as a result of this activity are formed during the combustion of various types of fuel, the disintegration of solid materials, during reloading and transportation of dusty materials, they rise from the surface of the urban area. The main sources of these substances entering the air basin of the city are various large and small power plants, enterprises of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, building materials, coke chemistry and transport.[ ...]
Needless to say, the existence of free oxygen in the atmosphere of planets may indicate the presence of life on them: on Earth, the emergence of an oxygen atmosphere was also associated with the origin of life. Thus, the study of ozone comes into contact with one of the remarkable problems of modern cosmogony.[ ...]
Photochemical reactions are not the only reactions in the atmosphere. There are numerous transformations involving tens of thousands chemical compounds, the course of which is accelerated by radiation (solar radiation, cosmic radiation, radioactive radiation), as well as by the catalytic properties of particulate matter and traces of heavy metals present in the air. Significant changes undergo sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, halogens and interhalogen compounds, nitrogen oxides and ammonia, aldehydes and amines, sulfides and mercaptans, nitro compounds and olefins, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and pesticides entering the air. Sometimes these reactions can cause not only qualitative, but also quantitative changes in the global composition of the planet's atmosphere, leading to climate change on Earth. Accumulating in upper layers atmosphere, fluoro-chlorohydrocarbons photolytically decompose to form chlorine oxides, which interact with ozone, reducing its concentration in the stratosphere. A similar effect is also observed in the reactions of ozone with sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. As a result of the decomposition of nitrogen fertilizers applied to the soil, nitrogen oxide NO is emitted into the atmosphere, which interacts with atmospheric ozone, converting it into oxygen. All these reactions reduce the ozone content in the layers of the atmosphere at a height of 20-40 km, which protect the surface layer of the atmosphere from high-energy solar radiation. Such transformations lead to global change climate of the planet.[ ...]
Despite such high levels of Z.a., RF is not the main pollutant of the planet's atmosphere (Table 18).[ ...]
There is a hypothesis of the inorganic origin of free oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. According to this hypothesis, the existence in the upper layers of the atmosphere of the process of decomposition of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen under the action of hard cosmic radiation should result in a gradual leakage of light, mobile hydrogen into outer space and the accumulation of free oxygen in the atmosphere, which, without any participation of life, should restore the primary atmosphere. turn planets into oxidizing planets. According to calculations, this process could create an oxidizing atmosphere on Earth in 1-1.2 billion years. But it inevitably occurs on other planets of the solar system, and during the entire time of their existence, which is approximately 4.5 billion years. Nevertheless, on no planet in our system, except for the Earth and, with an incomparably lower oxygen content, Mars, there is practically no free oxygen, and their atmospheres still retain reducing properties. Obviously, on Earth, this process could increase the content of carbon and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, but not enough to make it oxidizing. So the most plausible is the hypothesis that links the presence of free oxygen on Earth with the activity of photosynthetic organisms.[ ...]
For odors, their role in the transfer of such heavier atoms as arsenic, sulfur, selenium, etc., into the atmosphere in gaseous form, has not been studied at all. Now this can only be noted. As I have already pointed out, the chemical quantitative study of the atmospheres of the planet is one of the backward geochemical problems.[ ...]
In conclusion, it is useful to give some information about the magnetospheres and ionospheres of other planets. Differences from the Earth's ionosphere are due to the chemical composition of the atmospheres of the planets and the difference in distances from the Sun. During the day, the maximum electron concentration on Mars is 2105 cm-3 at an altitude of 130-140 km, on Venus - 5106 cm-3 at an altitude of 140-150 km. On Venus, devoid of a magnetic field, there is a low-lying plasmapause (300 km) during the day, which is due to the action of the solar wind. On Jupiter, with its strong magnetic field, auroras and a radiation belt were found that are much more intense than on Earth.[ ...]
Carbon dioxide CO2 is a non-toxic, but harmful substance due to the recorded increase in its concentration in the planet's atmosphere and its impact on climate change (see Chapter 5). Steps are being taken to regulate its emissions from energy, industry and transport facilities.[ ...]
The progressive increase in the amount of oxygen in water due to the activity of photosynthetic organisms and its diffusion into the atmosphere caused changes in the chemical composition of the Earth's shells, and, above all, the atmosphere, which in turn made possible the rapid spread of life across the planet and the emergence of more complex life forms. As the oxygen content in the atmosphere increases, a sufficiently powerful layer of ozone is formed, which protects the Earth's surface from the penetration of harsh ultraviolet and space studies. In such conditions, life was able to move to the surface of the sea. The development of the mechanism of aerobic respiration has made possible appearance multicellular organisms. The first such organisms appeared after the oxygen concentration in the planet's atmosphere reached 3%, which happened 600 million years ago (the beginning of the Cambrian period).[ ...]
The gas envelope saves everything living on Earth from the destructive ultraviolet, X-ray and cosmic rays. The upper layers of the atmosphere partially absorb and partially scatter these rays. The atmosphere also protects us from "star fragments". Meteorites, overwhelmingly no larger than a pea, under the influence of gravity with great speed (from 11 to 64 km / s) crash into the atmosphere of the planet, heat up there as a result of friction against the air and at a height of about 60-70 km for the most part burn out. The atmosphere also protects the Earth from large space fragments.[ ...]
The current nature of the consumption of raw materials leads to an uncontrollable increase in the volume of waste. A huge amount of them enters the atmosphere in the form of dust and gas emissions and sewage in water bodies, which negatively affects the state of the environment. Most of all, the atmosphere is polluted by thermal power engineering, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, and the chemical industry.[ ...]
Before presenting the theory, mention should be made of the idea of an uncontrolled "greenhouse effect" proposed by Reisul and De Berg in connection with the theory of the evolution of planetary atmospheres. Preliminarily, such strong differences between the atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars should be explained.[ ...]
An analysis of the dynamics of the descent of an automatic interplanetary station (AMS) on a parachute gives additional remedy control of the internal consistency of data on the atmosphere of the planet, if at least two of any three thermodynamic parameters of the atmosphere are simultaneously measured, related by the equation of state of the gas. The methodology described below will be applied to illustrate its use for the analysis and consistency check of data obtained during the descent of the Venera-4 AMS (see ).[ ...]
Catastrophic at present is the deforestation1 of tropical forests, which are one of the largest sources of oxygen, a vital resource of our planet, renewable by biota. Tropical forests are disappearing due to the fact that the population in these areas is rapidly increasing. Because of the threat of famine, people, in pursuit of small crops, use any patches of land for fields and gardens, cutting down ancient tropical forests, trees, and shrubs for this. In the event of the destruction of forests in the equatorial zone, the Amazon and, as a result, a decrease in the oxygen content in the atmosphere of the planet, humanity and the very existence of the biosphere2 will be in danger of death from hypoxia.[ ...]
We now emphasize that all the formulas indicated in this paragraph contained only six truly "external" dimensional parameters: the assimilated solar radiation flux q, the radius of the planet a, and the angular velocity of its rotation
Wherein central location in negotiations on global climate change, the United States occupies not so much because of its political or economic weight, but because of the share of emissions into the atmosphere of the planet; the contribution of this country is 25%, so that any international agreements without their participation are almost meaningless. Unlike European countries The US is extremely cautious and inactive due to the price it will have to pay to reduce CO2 emissions.[ ...]
Since the mid 1970s. Golitsyn took up the development of the theory of convection, including taking into account rotation. This topic has applications to many natural objects: to the Earth's mantle and its liquid core, the atmospheres of planets and stars, to the ocean. For all these objects, simple formulas have been obtained to explain the observational data or the results of numerical simulations. He developed the theory and organized the cycle experimental work by convection of a rotating fluid. On this basis, the strength of the winds and the size of tropical and polar hurricanes are explained.[ ...]
The same is happening in African countries, in Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Guinea. Tropical forests, covering 7% of the earth's surface in areas close to the equator, and playing a crucial role in enriching the planet's atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide, are depleted at a rate of 100 thousand km2 per year.[ ...]
We do not yet have fully convincing evidence for the existence of life outside the Earth, or, as Lederberg (1960) calls it, "exobiology", but what we have learned about the environment on Mars and on other planets with an atmosphere does not exclude such a possibility. Although the temperature and other physical conditions of the environment on these planets are extreme, they are not beyond the tolerance of some of the most resistant inhabitants of the Earth (bacteria, viruses, lichens, etc.), especially if a milder microclimate under the surface or in protected areas is considered likely. However, it can be considered established that on other planets of the solar system there are no large "oxygen eaters", such as humans or dinosaurs, since there is very little or no oxygen in the atmosphere of these planets. It is now clear that the green areas and the so-called "channels" of Mars are not vegetation or the work of intelligent beings. However, based on the data of spectroscopic observations of the dark regions of Mars in infrared rays, it can be assumed that there is organic matter, and recent automatic interplanetary stations (Mariner-6 and Mariner-7) discovered ammonia on this planet, which may have a biological origin.[ ...]
The study of the ocean as a physical and chemical system progressed much faster than its study as a biological system. Hypotheses about the origin and geological history oceans, initially speculative, acquired a solid theoretical basis.[ ...]
In this regard, one should dwell on the existing theoretical models for the development of nuclear incidents in the military aspect. The models take into account the amount of energy stored in the form of thermonuclear charges and nuclear power plants, and give an answer to the question of how would change climatic conditions on a global scale after one year after a nuclear war. The final views were as follows. The reaction of the atmosphere will lead to a situation similar to that of the atmosphere on Mars, where dust continues to spread throughout the planet's atmosphere 10 days after the start of dust storms, which dramatically reduces solar radiation. As a result, the Martian land cools by 10 - 15 °C, and the dusty atmosphere heats up by 30 °C (compared to normal conditions). These are signs of the so-called "nuclear winter", the specific indicators of which are difficult to predict today. However, it is quite obvious that the conditions for the existence of higher forms of organization of living matter will be dramatically changed.[ ...]
Currently tenaxes are extremely popular among analysts: they are used to concentrate from air (and water after blowing out impurities, see section 6) trace VOCs in gas chromatography and GC / MS analysis in the study of air in cities and residential premises, determining the quality air working area and administrative buildings, exhaust gases of vehicles and emissions from industrial enterprises, the atmosphere of compartments of orbital spacecraft and submarines, the atmosphere of planets, etc.[ ...]
In the concept of “negative viscosity”, one of the main questions is where the large-scale eddies themselves, which support zonal circulation, draw energy from. this case- differential rotation. There is a fundamental possibility that energy comes to them directly from small-scale convection, but physically this mechanism is not quite clear and it is all the more difficult to somehow quantify its effectiveness. The hypothesis of non-isotropic turbulent viscosity also belongs to this kind of possibilities. Another possibility, realized in the atmospheres of planets, is the transfer of not kinetic, but potential energy with its subsequent transformation into kinetic energy. As already mentioned, due to the influence of the Sun's own rotation, the average temperature at certain horizontal (equipotential) levels may not be the same at all latitudes, which should lead to large-scale movements that eventually transfer heat to colder latitudes. This second possibility essentially echoes the ideas of Vogt and Eddington. All these circumstances allow us to speak about the proximity of some of the main features of the atmospheric circulation on the Sun and planets.[ ...]
Regulations and restrictions are established at the local, regional and federal levels. They must have a well-defined territorial reference. In long-term planning, prognostic and even ecological-futurological studies should be used in order to identify potential regulatory factors for nature management, including emission limits for substances that are currently not limited. Thus, carbon dioxide is currently not classified as a pollutant of the atmospheric air. As the gross emission of this compound into the planet's atmosphere increases and the total photosynthetic capacity of forests decreases, due to their barbaric deforestation, the "greenhouse effect" will certainly make itself felt, which threatens to develop into a global environmental catastrophe. Indicative in this regard is the example of the American private energy company Appleid Energy Services, located in Virginia, which donated $ 2 million in 1988 to plant trees in Guatemala as compensation for a coal-fired thermal power plant that the company is building in Connecticut. It is expected that the planted trees will absorb about the same amount of carbon dioxide as the new power plant will emit into the atmosphere, thus preventing a possible global warming.[ ...]
PAYMENT FOR NATURAL RESOURCES - monetary compensation by the user of natural resources for the public costs of finding, preserving, restoring, withdrawing and transporting the used natural resource, as well as the potential efforts of society to replace in kind or adequately replace the exploited resource in the future. Such a fee should include the costs associated with inter-resource links. From an ecological and economic point of view, this fee should also be calculated taking into account the global and regional impact of nature users on natural systems (for example, large-scale forest removal leads to a violation of not only local water balance, but also the entire gas composition of the planet's atmosphere). The existing methods for determining the size of the fee do not yet take into account all the factors that affect the environmental and economic mechanism of its formation.[ ...]
Wind energy is one of the most ancient sources of energy used. It was widely used to drive mills and water-lifting devices in ancient times in Egypt and the Middle East. Then wind energy began to be used to move ships, boats, and be captured by sails. In Europe windmills appeared in the 12th century. steam engines made to forget long time wind installations. In addition, the low unit capacity of the units, the real dependence of their work on weather conditions, as well as the ability to convert wind energy only into its mechanical form, have limited the widespread use of this natural source. Wind energy is ultimately the result of thermal processes occurring in the planet's atmosphere. Density differences between hot and cold air active change air masses. The initial source of wind energy is the energy of solar radiation, which turns into one of its forms - the energy of air currents.
The article tells about which planet does not have an atmosphere, why an atmosphere is needed, how it arises, why some are deprived of it, and how it could be created artificially.
Start
Life on our planet would be impossible without an atmosphere. And the point is not only the oxygen that we breathe, by the way, it contains only a little more than 20%, but also the fact that it creates the pressure necessary for living beings and protects from solar radiation.
According to the scientific definition, the atmosphere is the gaseous shell of the planet that rotates with it. To put it simply, a huge accumulation of gas is constantly hanging above us, but we will not notice its weight in the same way as the Earth's gravity, because we were born in such conditions and got used to it. But not all celestial bodies are lucky to have it. So which planet does not take into account we will not take into account, since it is still a satellite.
Mercury
The atmosphere of planets of this type consists mainly of hydrogen, and the processes in it are very violent. What is worth only one atmospheric vortex, which has been observed for more than three hundred years - that same red spot in the lower part of the planet.
Saturn
Like all gas giants, Saturn is made up mostly of hydrogen. Winds do not subside on it, lightning flashes and even rare auroras are observed.
Uranus and Neptune
Both planets are hidden by a thick layer of clouds of hydrogen, methane and helium. Neptune, by the way, holds the record for wind speed on the surface - as much as 700 kilometers per hour!
Pluto
Remembering such a phenomenon as a planet without an atmosphere, it is difficult not to mention Pluto. Of course, it is far from Mercury: its gaseous shell is "only" 7 thousand times less dense than the earth's. But still it is the most distant and yet little-studied planet. Little is also known about it - only that methane is present in it.
How to create an atmosphere for life
The idea of colonizing other planets haunts scientists from the very beginning And even more so about terraformation (creation on conditions without means of protection). All this is still at the level of hypotheses, but on the same Mars it is quite possible to create an atmosphere. This process is complex and multi-stage, but its main idea is as follows: to spray bacteria on the surface, which will produce even more carbon dioxide, the density of the gas shell will increase, and the temperature will rise. After that, the melting of the polar glaciers will begin, and due to the increase in pressure, the water will not evaporate without a trace. And then the rains will come, and the soil will become suitable for plants.
So we figured out which planet is practically devoid of an atmosphere.
In fact, even in the future, when a vacation somewhere in the vicinity of Jupiter will be as common as today - on an Egyptian beach, the main tourist center the earth will remain. The reason for this is simple: the weather is always good here. But on other planets and satellites, this is very bad.
Mercury
The surface of the planet Mercury resembles that of the moon
Although Mercury has no atmosphere at all, it does have a climate. And creates it, of course, the scorching proximity of the Sun. And since air and water cannot efficiently transfer heat from one part of the planet to another, there are truly deadly temperature changes here.
On the day side of Mercury, the surface can warm up to 430 degrees Celsius - enough to melt tin, and on the night side - drop to -180 degrees Celsius. Against the backdrop of the terrifying heat nearby, at the bottom of some craters it is so cold that dirty ice has been preserved in this eternal shadow for millions of years.
The axis of rotation of Mercury is not tilted, like that of the Earth, but is strictly perpendicular to the orbit. Therefore, you won’t admire the change of seasons here: the same weather costs all year round. In addition to this, a day on the planet lasts about one and a half of our year.
Venus
Craters on the surface of Venus
Let's face it: the wrong planet was named Venus. Yes, in the dawn sky she really shines like clean water gem. But that's until you get to know her better. The neighboring planet can be considered as visual aid on the question of what the greenhouse effect that has crossed all boundaries is capable of creating.
The atmosphere of Venus is incredibly dense, restless and aggressive. Consisting mostly of carbon dioxide, it absorbs more solar energy than the same Mercury, although it is much farther from the Sun. Therefore, the planet is even hotter: almost unchanged over the course of the year, the temperature here is kept around 480 degrees Celsius. Add to this atmospheric pressure, which on Earth can only be obtained by diving into the ocean to a kilometer depth, and you hardly want to be here.
But this is not the whole truth about the bad character of the beauty. On the surface of Venus, powerful volcanoes continuously erupt, filling the atmosphere with soot and sulfur compounds, which quickly turn into sulfuric acid. Yes, acid rain is falling on this planet - and really acidic, which would easily leave wounds on the skin and corrode the photographic equipment of tourists.
However, tourists would not even be able to straighten up here to take a picture: the atmosphere of Venus rotates much faster than itself. On Earth, the air goes around the planet in almost a year, on Venus - in four hours, generating a constant hurricane-force wind. It is not surprising that even specially trained spacecraft could not survive for more than a few minutes in this disgusting climate. It's good that there is no such thing on our home planet. Our nature does not have bad weather, which is confirmed at http://www.gismeteo.ua/city/daily/4957/, and this is good news.
Mars
Atmosphere of Mars, image taken by the Viking artificial satellite in 1976. Galle's "smiley crater" is visible on the left
Fascinating finds that have been made on the Red Planet for last years, show that Mars was very different in the distant past. Billions of years ago, it was a humid planet with a good atmosphere and vast bodies of water. In some places, traces of the ancient coastline remained on it - but that's all: today it is better not to get here. Modern Mars is a naked and dead icy desert, through which powerful dust storms now and then sweep.
There is no dense atmosphere on the planet that could hold heat and water for a long time. How it disappeared is not yet very clear, but most likely, Mars simply does not have sufficient “attractive power”: it is about half the size of the Earth, it has almost three times less gravity.
As a result, deep cold reigns here at the poles and polar caps remain, consisting mainly of “dry snow” - frozen carbon dioxide. Admittedly, near the equator, daytime temperatures can be very comfortable, around 20 degrees Celsius. But, however, at night it will still fall several tens of degrees below zero.
Despite the frankly weak atmosphere of Mars, snow storms at its poles and dust storms in other parts are not at all uncommon. Samums, khamsins and other debilitating desert winds, carrying myriads of all-penetrating and prickly grains of sand, winds that are encountered only in certain regions on Earth, here can cover the entire planet, making it completely unphotographable for several days.
Jupiter and environs
To assess the scale of Jupiter's storms, even a powerful telescope is not required. The most impressive of them - the Great Red Spot - has not subsided for several centuries, and has three times the size of our entire Earth. However, he may soon lose his position as a long-term leader. A few years ago, astronomers discovered a new vortex on Jupiter, Oval BA, which is not yet the size of the Great Red Spot, but is growing at an alarming rate.
No, Jupiter is unlikely to attract even fans of extreme recreation. Hurricane winds blow constantly here, they cover the entire planet, moving at a speed of under 500 km / h, and often in opposite directions, which creates terrifying turbulent eddies at their borders (such as the Great Red Spot familiar to us, or Oval BA).
In addition to temperatures below -140 degrees Celsius and the deadly force of gravity, one more fact must not be forgotten - there is nowhere to walk on Jupiter. This planet is a gas giant, generally devoid of a definite solid surface. And even if some desperate skydiver managed to dive into its atmosphere, he would end up in the semi-liquid depths of the planet, where colossal gravity creates matter of exotic forms - say, superfluid metallic hydrogen.
But ordinary divers should pay attention to one of the satellites of the giant planet - Europe. In general, of the many satellites of Jupiter, at least two in the future will certainly be able to claim the title of "tourist Mecca".
For example, Europe is entirely covered by an ocean of salt water. The diver is expanse here - the depth reaches 100 km - if only to break through the ice crust that covers the entire satellite. So far, no one knows what the future follower of Jacques-Yves Cousteau will find on Europa: some planetary scientists suggest that conditions suitable for life may be found here.
Another Jupiter moon, Io, will no doubt become a favorite of photobloggers. The powerful gravity of a close and huge planet constantly deforms, “crumples” the satellite and heats its bowels to enormous temperatures. This energy breaks through to the surface in areas of geological activity and feeds hundreds of constantly active volcanoes. Due to the weak gravity on the satellite, the eruptions throw out impressive streams that rise hundreds of kilometers in height. Photographers are waiting for extremely mouth-watering shots!
Saturn with "suburbs"
No less tempting from the point of view of photography, of course, is Saturn with its brilliant rings. Of particular interest may be an unusual storm near the north pole of the planet, which has the shape of an almost regular hexagon with sides of almost 14 thousand km.
But for a normal rest, Saturn is not at all adapted. In general, this is the same gas giant as Jupiter, only worse. The atmosphere here is cold and dense, and local hurricanes can move faster than sound and faster than a bullet - speeds of more than 1600 km / h have been recorded.
But the climate of Saturn's moon Titan can attract a whole crowd of oligarchs. The point, however, is not at all in the surprising mildness of the weather. Titanium is the only known heavenly body, on which there is a circulation of fluid, as on Earth. Only the role of water is played here by ... liquid hydrocarbons.
The very substances that on Earth constitute the main wealth of the country - natural gas(methane) and other combustible compounds - on Titan are present in excess, in liquid form: for this it is cold enough here (- 162 degrees Celsius). Methane swirls in the clouds and rains, fills the rivers that flow into almost full-fledged seas... To pump - not to pump!
Uranus
Not the most distant, but the coldest planet in the entire solar system: the “thermometer” here can drop to an unpleasant mark of − 224 degrees Celsius. It is not much warmer than absolute zero. For some reason - perhaps due to a collision with some large body - Uranus rotates lying on its side, and the north pole of the planet is turned towards the Sun. Apart from powerful hurricanes, there is nothing to see here.
Neptune and Triton
Neptune (top) and Triton (below)
Like other gas giants, Neptune is a very turbulent place. Storms here can reach sizes larger than our entire planet and move at a record speed known to us: almost 2500 km / h. Other than that, it's a boring place. It is worth visiting Neptune only because of one of its satellites - Triton.
In general, Triton is as cold and monotonous as its planet, but tourists are always intrigued by everything transient and perishing. Triton is just one of these: the satellite is slowly approaching Neptune, and after a while it will be torn apart by its gravity. Some of the debris will fall on the planet, and some may form a kind of ring, like that of Saturn. It is not yet possible to say exactly when this will happen: somewhere in 10 or 100 million years. So you should hurry up to have time to see Triton - the famous "Dying Satellite".
Pluto
Deprived of the high title of the planet, Pluto remained in dwarfs, but we can safely say: this is a very strange and inhospitable place. The orbit of Pluto is very long and strongly elongated into an oval, which is why the year here lasts almost 250 Earth years. During this time, the weather changes a lot.
While winter reigns on the dwarf planet, it freezes entirely. As it approaches the Sun, Pluto heats up. Surface ice composed of methane, nitrogen and carbon monoxide, begins to evaporate, creating a thin atmospheric shell. Temporarily, Pluto becomes like a completely full-fledged planet, and at the same time like a comet: due to its dwarf size, the gas is not retained, but is carried away from it, creating a tail. Normal planets don't behave like this.
All these climatic anomalies are quite understandable. Life arose and developed precisely in terrestrial conditions, so the local climate is almost ideal for us. Even the worst Siberian frosts and tropical storms look like childish pranks compared to what awaits vacationers on Saturn or Neptune. Therefore, our advice to you for the future is not to waste long-awaited days of rest on these exotic places. We’d better take care of our own cozy one, so that even when interplanetary travel becomes available, our descendants can relax on an Egyptian beach or just outside the city, on a clean river.
Earth- the planet of the solar system, located at a distance of 150 million kilometers from the sun. The earth revolves around him average speed 29.765 km/s. It makes a complete revolution around the Sun in a period equal to 365.24 mean solar days. Earth satellite - Moon, circulates at a distance of 384,400 km. The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic is 66° 33" 22", the period of revolution around the axis is 23 h 56 min 4.1 s. Shape - geoid, spheroid. The equatorial radius is 6378.16 km, the polar one is 6356.777 km. Surface area - 510.2 million km 2. The mass of the Earth is 6 * 10 24 kg. Volume - 1.083 * 10 12 km 3. The gravitational field of the Earth determines the existence of the atmosphere and the spherical shape of the planet.
The average density of the Earth is 5.5 g/cm 3 . This is almost twice as high as the density of surface rocks (about 3 g/cm3). The density increases with depth. The inner part of the lithosphere forms the core, which is in a molten state. Studies have shown that the core is divided into two zones: the inner core (radius about 1300 km), which is probably solid, and the liquid outer core (radius about 3400 km). The hard shell is also heterogeneous, it has a sharp interface at a depth of about 40 km. This boundary is called the Mohorovichic surface. The region above the Mohorović surface is called bark, below - mantle. The mantle, like the crust, is in a solid state, with the exception of individual lava "pockets". With depth, the density of the mantle increases from 3.3 g/cm 3 near the surface of Mohorovicic and up to 5.2 g/cm 3 at the boundary of the core. At the boundary of the core, it jumps up to 9.4 g/cm 3 . The density at the center of the Earth is in the range from 14.5 g/cm 3 to 18 g/cm 3 . At the lower boundary of the mantle, the pressure reaches 1300,000 atm. When descending into the mines, the temperature rises rapidly - by about 20 ° C per 1 kilometer. The temperature in the center of the Earth, apparently, does not exceed 9000°C. Since the rate of temperature increase with depth decreases on average as one approaches the center of the Earth, heat sources should be concentrated in the outer parts of the lithosphere, most likely in the mantle. The only conceivable reason for the heating of the mantle is radioactive decay. 71% of the earth's surface is occupied by oceans, which form the bulk of the hydrosphere. Earth- the only planet in the solar system that has a hydrosphere. The hydrosphere supplies water vapor to the atmosphere. Water vapor through infrared absorption creates a significant greenhouse effect, raising the average temperature of the Earth's surface by about 40°C. The presence of the hydrosphere played a decisive role in the emergence of life on Earth.
The chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level is oxygen (about 20%) and nitrogen (about 80%). The modern composition of the Earth's atmosphere seems to be very different from the primary one, which took place 4.5 * 10 9 years ago, when the crust was formed. The biosphere - plants, animals and microorganisms - significantly affects both the general characteristics of the planet Earth and the chemical composition of its atmosphere.
Moon
The diameter of the Moon is 4 times less than the Earth's, and the mass is 81 times less. Moon- the celestial body closest to the Earth.
The density of the Moon is less than that of the Earth (3.3 g/cm3). It does not have a core, but a constant temperature is maintained in the bowels. Significant temperature drops were recorded on the surface: from +120°С in the subsolar point of the Moon to -170°С from opposite side. This is explained, firstly, by the absence of an atmosphere, and secondly, by the duration of the lunar day and lunar night, equal to two Earth weeks.
The relief of the lunar surface includes lowlands and mountainous areas. Traditionally, the lowlands are called "seas", although they are not filled with water. From Earth, the "seas" are visible as dark spots on the Moon's surface. Their names are quite exotic: the Sea of Cold, the Ocean of Storms, the Sea of Moscow, the Sea of Crises, etc.
Mountainous areas cover most of the Moon's surface and include mountain ranges and craters. The names of many lunar mountain ranges are similar to those of the earth: Apennines, Carpathians, Altai. Most high mountains reach a height of 9 km.
Craters occupy the largest area of the lunar surface. Some of them have a diameter of about 200 km (Clavius and Schickard). some are several times smaller (Aristarchus, Anaximei).
The lunar surface is most convenient for observation from the Earth in places where day and night border, i.e., near the terminator. In general, only one hemisphere of the Moon can be seen from the Earth, but exceptions are possible. As a result of the fact that the Moon moves in its orbit unevenly and its shape is not strictly spherical, its periodic pendulum oscillations about its center of mass are observed. This leads to the fact that about 60% of the lunar surface can be observed from the Earth. This phenomenon is called the libration of the moon.
There is no atmosphere on the moon. Sounds do not propagate on it, because there is no air.
Moon phases
The moon does not have its own luminosity. therefore, it is visible only in the part where the rays of the sun or reflected by the Earth fall. This explains the phases of the moon. Every month, the Moon, moving in orbit, passes between the Earth and the Sun and faces us with the dark side (new moon). A few days later, a narrow crescent of the young moon appears in the western part of the sky. The rest of the lunar disk is dimly lit at this time. After 7 days, the first quarter comes, after 14-15 - the full moon. On the 22nd day, the last quarter is observed, and after 30 days, the full moon again.
Moon exploration
The first attempts to study the surface of the Moon took place quite a long time ago, but direct flights to the Moon began only in the second half of the 20th century.
In 1958, the first landing of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon took place, and in 1969 the first people landed on it. These were the American cosmonauts N. Armstrong and E. Oldrnn, who were brought there spaceship"Apollo 11".
The main objectives of the flights to the Moon were to take soil samples and study the topography of the Moon's surface. Photographs of the invisible side of the Moon were first taken by the Luna-Z and Luna-9 spacecraft. Soil sampling was carried out by the Luna-16, Luna-20 and other devices.
Sea tides and tides on Earth.
On Earth, high and low tides alternate on average every 12 hours and 25 minutes. The phenomenon of ebbs and flows is associated with the attraction of the Earth to the Sun and Moon. But due to the fact that the distance to the Sun is too large (150 * 10 6 km), the solar tides are much weaker than the lunar ones.
On the part of our planet that faces the Moon, the force of attraction is greater, and less on the peripheral direction. As a result of this, the water shell of the Earth is stretched along the line connecting the Earth with the Moon. Therefore, in the part of the Earth facing the Moon, the water of the World Ocean bulges (a tide occurs). Along the circle, the plane of which is perpendicular to the Earth-Moon line and passes through the center of the Earth, the water level in the oceans decreases (there is a low tide).
The tides slow down the rotation of the Earth. According to the calculations of scientists earlier, the Earth day was no more than 6 hours.
Mercury
- Distance from the Sun - 58 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 54 200 kg / m 3
- Mass - 0.056 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 88 Earth days
- Diameter - 0.4 Earth diameter
- Satellites - no
Physical conditions:
- closest planet to the sun
- No atmosphere
- The surface is littered with craters
- The daily temperature range is 660°С (from +480°С to -180°С)
- The magnetic field is 150 times weaker than the earth's
Venus
- Distance from the Sun - 108 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 5240 kg / m 3
- Mass - 0.82 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 225 Earth days
- The period of revolution around its own axis is 243 days, the rotation is reverse
- Diameter - 12,100 km
- Satellites - no
Physical conditions
The atmosphere is denser than Earth. The composition of the atmosphere: carbon dioxide - 96%, nitrogen and inert gases> 4%, oxygen - 0.002%, water vapor - 0.02%. The pressure is 95-97 atm., the surface temperature is 470-480°C, which is due to the presence of the greenhouse effect. The planet is surrounded by a layer of clouds consisting of droplets of sulfuric acid with impurities of chlorine and sulfur. The surface is mostly smooth, with few ridges (10% of the surface) and craters (17% of the surface). The soil is basalt. magnetic field No.
Mars
- Distance from the Sun - 228 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 3950 kg / m 3
- Mass - 0.107 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 687 Earth days
- The period of revolution around its own axis is 24 h 37 min 23 s
- Diameter - 6800 km
- Satellites - 2 satellites: Phobos, Deimos
Physical conditions
The atmosphere is rarefied, the pressure is 100 times less than the earth. The composition of the atmosphere: carbon dioxide - 95%, nitrogen - more than 2%. oxygen - 0.3%, water vapor - 1%. The daily temperature range is 115°C (from +25°C during the day to -90°C at night). Sparse clouds and fog are observed in the atmosphere, which indicates the release of moisture from reservoirs ground water. The surface is littered with craters. The soil includes phosphorus, calcium, silicon, as well as iron oxides, which give the planet its red color. The magnetic field is 500 times weaker than the earth's.
Jupiter
- Distance from the Sun - 778 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 1330 kg / m 3
- Mass - 318 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 11.86 years
- Period of revolution around its axis - 9 h 55 min 29 s
- Diameter - 142,000 km
- Satellites - 16 satellites. Io, Gunnmed, Callisto, Europe are the largest
- 12 satellites rotate in one direction and 4 - in the opposite direction
Physical conditions
The atmosphere contains 90% hydrogen, 9% helium and 1% other gases (mainly ammonia). Clouds are made of ammonia. The radiation of Jupiter is 2.9 times greater than the energy received from the Sun. The planet is strongly flattened at the poles. The polar radius is 4400 km less than the equatorial one. Large cyclones are formed on the planet with a lifetime of up to 100 thousand years. The Great Red Spot observed on Jupiter is an example of such a cyclone. There may be a solid core at the center of the planet, although the bulk of the planet is in liquid state. The magnetic field is 12 times stronger than the earth's.
Saturn
- Distance from the Sun - 1426 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 690 kg / m 3
- Mass - 95 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 29.46 years
- Period of revolution around its axis - 10 h 14 min
- Diameter - 50,000 km
- Satellites - about 30 satellites. Most are icy.
- Some: Pandora, Prometheus, Janus, Epimetheus, Dione, Helen, Mimas, Encelau, Tefnia, Rhea, Titan, Yanet, Phoebe.
Physical conditions
The atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia. It receives 92 times less heat from the Sun than the Earth, reflects 45% of this energy. It gives off twice as much heat as it receives. Saturn has rings. The rings are divided into hundreds of individual rings. Discovered by X. Huygens. Rings are not solid. They have a meteorite structure, i.e. they consist of solid particles various sizes. The magnetic field is comparable to that of the earth.
Uranus
- Distance from the Sun - 2869 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 1300 kg / m 3
- Mass - 14.5 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 84.01 years
- Period of revolution around its own axis -16 h 48 min
- Equatorial diameter - 52,300 km
- Satellites - 15 satellites. Some of them are: Oberon (the most distant and second largest), Miranda, Cordelia (the closest to the planet), Ariel, Umbriel, Titania
- 5 satellites move in the direction of the planet's rotation near the plane of its equator in almost circular orbits, 10 revolve around Uranus inside Miranda's orbit
Physical conditions
The composition of the atmosphere: hydrogen, helium, methane. Atmospheric temperature -150°С by radio emission. Methane clouds have been found in the atmosphere. The bowels of the planet are hot. The axis of rotation is inclined at an angle of 98°. Found 10 dark rings separated by gaps. The magnetic field is 1.2 times weaker than the earth's and extends over 18 radii. There is a radiation belt.
Neptune
- Distance from the Sun - 4496 * 10 6 km
- Average density - 1600 kg / m 3
- Mass - 17.3 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 164.8 years
- Satellites - 2 satellites: Triton, Nereid
Physical conditions
The atmosphere is extended and consists of hydrogen (50%), helium (15%), methane (20%), ammonia (5%). The temperature of the atmosphere is about -230°C according to calculations, and according to radio emission -170°C. This indicates the hot bowels of the planet. Neptune was discovered on September 23, 1846 by I. G. Gallev from the Berlin Observatory using the calculations of the astronomer J. J. Le Verrier.
Pluto
- Distance from the Sun - 5900 * 10 6
- Average density - 1000-1200 kg / m 3
- Mass - 0.02 Earth masses
- The period of revolution around the Sun is 248 years
- Diameter - 3200 km
- The period of revolution around its axis is 6.4 days
- Satellites - 1 satellite - Charon, was discovered in 1978 by JW Krnsti from the Marine Laboratory in Washington.
Physical conditions
No visible signs of an atmosphere were found. Above the surface of the planet, the maximum temperature is -212°C, and the minimum is -273°C. Pluto's surface is thought to be covered by a layer of methane ice, and water ice is also possible. Acceleration free fall on the surface is 0.49 m/s 2 . Pluto's orbital speed is 16.8 km/h.
Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh and named after the ancient Greek god of the underworld because it is poorly illuminated by the Sun. Charon, according to the ancient Greeks, was the carrier of the dead to the kingdom of the dead across the river Styx.
